The Nile : notes for travellers in Egypt [Electronic Edition]

EXCAVATIONS IN 1901-02.

The principal excavations carried on in Upper Egypt
during the winter of 1900-01 are those of Mr. Garstang at
Bêt Ḳhallâf, Messrs. Reisner, Mace, and Lithgow, on a site
opposite the town of Girgeh, and of Professor Petrie at Abydos.
The village of Bêt Khallâf lies about nine miles west of
Girgeh, on the skirt of the desert, and some distance to the
north of it Mr. Garstang beâan to work; in the course of
his excavations he discovered several maṣṭaba tombs of the
Early Empire. Three miles south-west of Bêt Khallâf, in
the desert, he discovered in 1900-01 the two large maṣṭaba
tombs of KHET-NETER and ḤEN NEKHT, kings of the IIIrd
Dynasty. The first of these names is the Horus name of
the well-known king Tcheser, who built a pyramid at
Saḳḳâra, and is famous as the king who reigned over Egypt
during a famine which lasted seven years. The skeleton of
ḤEN-NEKHT was discovered in his tomb at Bêt Khallâf,
and it is evident that the king was a man of extraordinary
stature; Egyptian tradition has preserved many stories of
kings of gigantic height, e.g., Osiris and Sesostris were said
to be 8 cubits 6 palms and 3 fingers in height, and Sesochris
was said to be 5 cubits high, and 3 cubits broad.
The maṣṭaba of Tcheser is a very imposing building, and
the labour expended in constructing it was enormous, for
the interior is hewn out of the limestone to a depth which
is almost equal to the height of the brick building above
ground; it is well worth visiting and should be ascended:
the descent into the interior, however, is unsafe, and without
suitable tackle should not be attempted. Between the
royal maṣṭabas and the neighbouring village of Bêt Da‘ûd
lies an interesting tomb of an early ḥạ prince; it is approached
by means of an inclined plane and is worth a
visit.

xviii

Mr. Reisner excavated on sites of the predynastic period,
and of the IVth Dynasty, and of the period following the
VIth Dynasty. His works have been carried out with great
care, and when his results are published, it will probably be
found necessary to revise some of the existing ideas on the
subject of the development of Egyptian civilization in the
light of his discoveries. Professor Petrie, it is understood,
has been excavating within the area of the Temple of Osiris
at Arâbaṭ al-Madfûnah, north of the Temple of Rameses II.
at Abydos, and is said to have discovered predynastic
tombs on the slope of Kôm es-Sulṭân. In Lower Egypt
excavations have been carried out by the German Archaeological
Mission, under the direction of Dr. Borchardt, at
Abuṣîr, near Gîzeh, with successful results.

THE RECENTLY DISCOVERED CATA-COMB
AT ALEXANDRIA.

In the year 1900 a magnificent tomb of the Roman
period was discovered at Kôm esh-Shuḳâfa, near Pompey's
Pillar, in the quarry at this place, by some workmen, and
thanks to the exertions of Dr. Botti, the Director of the
Museum at Alexandria, this extremely interesting monument
has been preserved in the state in which it was found.
The tomb is divided into three stages, which descend into
the living rock. It is entered by means of a circular staircase
(A), which has been more or less restored, and when the
visitor has passed through a narrow way with a semicircular
recess (B) on each side, he arrives at a large rotunda (c)
with a circular gallery (DDDD), out of which open a series
of chambers (EEEE) which appear to have been dedicated
to the worship of the dead. On the right the two chambers
contain niches and sarcophagi; on the left is a large rectangular
chamber, the roof of which is supported by four pillars,
and it contains three tables hewn out of the solid rock,

xix

A Circular staircase (entrance). B Corridor with semicircular recesses. C Rotunda. D Circular gallery. F Staircase to second stage. G Entrance to third stage. H Ante-chamber. I Funeral chamber. J Sarcophagus chamber. K Funeral chambers with cavities for dead bodies.

THE PRONAOS AND ENTRANCE TO THE FUNERAL CHAMBER.

xxi

which were used for festival purposes by the relatives and
friends of the dead who assembled there at certain times
during the year. From the circular gallery a staircase leads
to the second stage of the tomb, which contains the chief
sarcophagus chamber; but a little way down it forks, and
passes round the entrance (G) to the third or lowest stage
of the tomb. The ante-chamber (H) of the tomb, or
pronaos, contains two Egyptian columns which support a
cornice ornamented with the winged solar disk, hawks, etc.,
in relief. In each of the side walls of the chamber is a
niche, in the form of an Egyptian pylon; that on the right
contains the statue of a man, that on the left the statue of
a woman. It has been thought that these niches are
ancient openings in the walls which were closed up for the
purpose of receiving the statues. The door of the actual
funeral chamber (1) is ornamented with the winged solar
disk, and a cornice of uraei; on each side of the door, on a
pylon-shaped pedestal, is a large serpent wearing the double
crown

, and with each are the caduceus of Hermes,
and the thyrsus of Dionysos. These serpents are probably
intended to represent the goddesses Uatchet and Nekhebet.
Above each serpent is a circular shield with a Gorgon's
head. The roof of the funeral chamber is vaulted, and the
stone is of the colour of old gold; at each corner is a
pilaster with a composite capital. In each of the three
sides is a niche containing a sarcophagus, which is hewn
out of the solid rock; the fronts of the three sarcophagi are
ornamented with festoons of vine leaves and bunches of
grapes, the heads of bulls, heads of Medusa, etc. Curiously
enough no one seems to have been laid in them. In
the principal relief of the right niche we see the figure of
a king, or prince, wearing the crowns of the South and
North, making an offering of a deep collar or breastplate
to the Apis Bull, which stands on a pylon-shaped pedestal,

xxii

and has a disk between its horns; behind Apis stands
Isis with a solar disk encircled by a uraeus upon her head,
and holding in her right hand the feather of Maạt. The
walls of the niches are ornamented with figures of Egyptian
gods, and in the central niche is a scene in which the
mummy of the deceased is represented lying upon its bier.
The bier has the usual form

, but above the lion's head
is the Atef crown of Osiris, and at the feet is the feather of
Maạt. By the side of the bier stands Anubis, with the
solar disk and uraei

on his head; at the head of the
bier stands Thoth, and at the feet is Horus, and under the
bier are vases containing the intestines of the deceased
dedicated to Qebḥsennuf (hawk-headed), Mesthạ (human
headed), and Ḥạpi (ape-headed). To the right and left of
the door are figures of:-1. Anubis, standing upright, in
human form, jackal-headed, with a solar disk on his head;
his right hand rests upon the edge of a shield which stands
on the ground by his side, and in his left he clasps a
spear. Round his neck and shoulder hangs a belt from
which is suspended a short sword. 2. Set (?), in the form
of a human body with arms and hands of a man, and the
head and tail of a crocodile; in his right hand he clasps a
spear, and in the left the end of a cloak.

Round the funeral chamber in which these reliefs occur,
on three sides, is a comparatively spacious gallery, in the walls
of which are hollowed-out cavities, each large enough to hold
three dead bodies; there are traces of names of those who
were buried in them. At the north-west corner of this gallery
is a corridor which leads into four other chambers, two of
which have in them niches for sarcophagi, and two are
provided with cavities wherein bodies might be laid on
stone slabs at intervals, one above the other. We have
already mentioned a third stage of the tomb, which was
approached by an entrance situated just below the place
where the staircase leading from the first to the second

xxiii

stage forked; this is now filled with water, and cannot be
investigated. The tomb is the most interesting of all the
tombs of the Roman period which have been found in
Alexandria, and is very instructive. It is, unfortunately,
impossible to assign an exact date to it, but it was probably
built in the first century B.C. or the first century A.D. The
name of the man for whom it was built is unknown, but it
is clear that he was of high rank, and there is no doubt
that his religion was au fond Egyptian. The artistic treatment
of the figures of the gods, and of the walls, pillars,
etc., exhibits strong Roman influence, and the mixture of
the two styles of funereal art is better illustrated in this
tomb than in any other of the period to which it belongs. It
is hard to explain why the sarcophagi in the niches of the
main funeral chamber have not been occupied by the
people for whom they were intended, and it is difficult to
understand why others were made in other chambers of the
tomb whilst these remained empty. It would appear that
the tomb was made for the head of a large and powerful
family, the members of which respected the places that had
been left for certain members of it, and judging from the
amount of space for burial which was actually occupied, we
are justified in thinking that the tomb was used as a
private mausoleum for about 150 or 200 years.

THE SÛDÂN IN 1901.

The revenue of the Sûdân was £E238,500, and the
expenditure £E403,000; the revenue for the past three
years was:-

	£E.
1899	126,500
1900	157,000
1901	238,500

In 1881 the amount of gum exported was 150,861

xxiv

kantars (the kantars = 99.05 1bs.); in 1901 it was
170,781 kantars; the amount exported in 1900 was 60,912
kantars, and in 1899 41,963 kantars. The military
charge on the Sûdân has been reduced from £E222,000
to £E122,000, and the general contribution of the Egyptian
treasury to make good the Sûdân deficit, both civil
and military, has been reduced from about £E417,000 in
1901 to about £E390,000 in 1902. The total receipts of
the Sûdân railways were £E165,000, the working expenses
being £E124,000; 6,703 passengers were carried in 1900,
and 8,265 in 1901; 27,555 tons of goods were carried in
1900, and 63,874 in 1901. The imports are valued at
£E370,852, and consist of:—

	Tons.	Value (£E).
Cotton stuffs	1,387	217,482
Flour	431	6,034
Rice	76	760
Spirits	250	8,400
Provisions	163	6,520
Sugar	1,733	19,687
Perfumes	7	2,800
Soap	117	3,217
Oil	98	2,352
Tallow	7	230
Dates	851	6,195
Tea	26	2,912
Petroleum	90	583
Tobacco	115	31,280
Miscellaneous	1,950	62,400
	7,301	370,852

On telegraphs the estimated revenue was £E4,500,
and the expenditure £E15,000; had the Government
telegrams been charged at the ordinary rates, the deficit of
£E10,500 would have been turned into a surplus of about
£E6,000. A new telegraph line from Suakin to Erkourt,
a distance of 40 miles, has been constructed. The net
revenue of the Post Office was rather less than £E5,000.

xxv

A tract of country about 300 miles long, and from 100 to
150 miles broad, has been made into a game preserve; it
lies between the Blue and White Niles, the Sobat River,
and the Abyssinian frontier. The wild animals killed under
license in 1901 numbered 842. Small civil hospitals have
been established at Omdurmân, Kharṭûm, Ḥalfa, Berber,
Dongola, Suakin, and Kassala. On Military and Civil
Works £E68,000 were spent, exclusive of £25,000 for
barracks to house a British battalion at Kharṭûm, a charge
which is borne by the British Government. The Gordon
College will be finished in the present year (1902), and a
primary school of 170 boys will be established in it. The
material condition of the people has greatly improved.
The population of Dongola in 1901 showed an increase of
14,046 over 1900; of this increase, 12,899 are children.
“The point of chief importance in connexion with the
government of the Sûdân since its reoccupation has
been to avoid serious fiscal and administrative errors at
starting, which it might possibly have been difficult to
rectify later. I think it may be said that no such errors
have been committed. The form of government is suitable
to the present very backward condition of the country. It
is not a military government, if I understand the use of that
very vague and indefinite expression. It is a government
which endeavours to carry out the ordinary principles of
civil administration through the agency of a number of
carefully selected officials, most of whom are military
officers. It is only necessary to read the reports…to be
convinced that … the spirit which inspires the whole
administration is, in its essence, not military, but civil…
Under all the circumstances of the case, the existing machine
of government, taken as a whole, is probably as good as any
that could be devised. Save in some few very remote localities,
life and property may be said to be everywhere secure.
The ordinary principles of civil and criminal justice are

xxvi

applied throughout by far the greater part of the country
In the second place, so far as I can gather, the people seem
contented. Their contentment rests, I believe, on two
main grounds. First, there has been no interference with
their religion or religious customs; secondly, they are not
overtaxed.… A somewhat long experience of the
East has led me to attach more importance to low taxation
than to reforms, however necessary these may, from the
European point of view, appear. As the revenue grows,
and as funds become available, these various reforms will
be accomplished in the Soudan, as they have for the most
part been already accomplished in Egypt, though I do not
doubt that the process of reformation will be relatively
slow.… The main requirement of the Soudan, for the
moment, is, as I have already mentioned, the improvement
of its communications, and notably the establishment of
connexion by rail between the Nile Valley and the Red
Sea. When the Engineer officers can report with confidence
as to the best method of attaining this latter object, the
funds necessary for the execution of the work shall be
forthcoming, and the very important question of the labour,
through the agency of which the railway shall be constructed,
will be fully considered.” See the Earl of Cromer
in his Report on Egypt and the Soudan in 1901, Egypt,
No. 1 (1902), pp. 75, 76.

NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT.
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.

THE history of Egypt is the oldest history known to us.
It is true that the earliest of the Babylonian kings whose
names are known lived very little later than the earliest
kings of Egypt, nevertheless our knowledge of the early
Egyptian is greater than of the early Babylonian kings.
A large portion of Egyptian history can be constructed
from the native records of the Egyptians, and it is now
possible to correct and modify many of the statements
upon this subject made by Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus
and other classical authors. The native and other documents
from which Egyptian history is obtained are:—

I. Lists of Kings found in the Turin Papyrus, the
Tablet of Abydos , the Tablet of Ṣaịịâra, and the
Tablet of Karnak . The Turin papyrus contained a
complete list of kings, beginning with the god-kings and
continuing down to the end of the rule of the Hyksos,
about B.C. 1700. The name of each king during this period,
together with the length of his reign in years, months and
days, was given, and it would have been, beyond all doubt,
the most valuable of all documents for the chronology of the
oldest period of Egyptian history, if scholars had been able
to make use of it in the perfect condition in which it was

discovered. When it arrived in Turin, however, it was
found to be broken into more than one hundred and fifty
fragments. So far back as 1824, Champollion recognized
the true value of the fragments, and placed some of them
in their chronological order. Its evidence is of the greatest
importance for the history of the XIIIth and XIVth dynasties,
because in this section the papyrus is tolerably perfect;
for the earlier dynasties it is of very little use.

On the monuments each Egyptian king has usually two
names, the prenomen and the nomen; each of these
is contained in a cartouche.*

* Cartouche is the name which is usually given to the oval , in
which the name of a royal person is enclosed.

Thus the prenomen of
Thothmes III. is

Rā-men-Kheper, and his
nomen is

Teḥuti-mes. Rā-men-Kheper means
something like “Rā (the Sun-god) establishes becoming
or existence”; Teḥuti-mes means “born of Thoth,” or
“Thoth's son.” These names are quite distinct from
his titles. Before the prenomen comes the title

suten net (or bāt), †

† The ordinary word for “king” is suten. The word
Pharaoh, פרעח, which the Hebrews called the kings of Egypt, is
derived from the Egyptian per āa, otherwise written or

“King of the North and South,” and after
it comes

sa Rā, “son of the Sun,” preceding the
nomen. Each prenomen has a meaning, but it is at times
difficult to render it exactly in English. Every king styled
himself king of “the North and South,” and “son of the
Sun.” The first title is sometimes varied by “Beautiful

god, lord of the two earths.”*

* Some kings had a large number of titles. Thus Thothmes III. is
styled “Horus, mighty bull, diademed with law, the lord,
maker of things, Rā-men-kheper,” etc., etc. He is also called:
, “King of the North and
South, mighty of terror in all lands”; ,
“Horus, exalted one of the white crown, beloved of Rā”;
, “Golden Horus,
mighty of valour, smiter of the Nine Bows,” etc.

In the earliest times the
kings were named after some attribute possessed by them;
thus Menȧ, the first king of Egypt, is the “firm” or “established.”
In the Turin Papyrus only the prenomens of
the kings are given, but its statements are confirmed and
amplified by the other lists.

The Tablet of Abydos †

† See pp. 626, 627. There is a duplicate in the British
Museum (Northern Egyptian Gallery, No. 117).

was discovered by Dümichen
in the temple of Osiris at Abydos, during M. Mariette's
excavations there in 1864. This list gives us the names
of seventy-five kings, beginning with Menā or Menes, and
ending with Seti I., the father of Rameses II.; it is not a
complete list, and it would seem as if the scribe who drew
up the list only inserted such names as he considered
worthy of living for ever. The Tablet of Sakkâra ‡

‡ See page 587.

was
discovered at Ṣaịịâra by Mariette, in the grave of a dignitary
who lived during the reign of Rameses II. In spite of
a break in it, and some orthographical errors, it is a valuable
list; it gives the names of forty-seven kings, and it agrees
very closely with the Abydos list. It is a curious fact that
it begins with the name of Mer-ba-pen, the sixth king of
the Ist dynasty. The Tablet of Karnak was discovered at
Karnak by Burton, and was taken to Paris by Prisse. It

was drawn up in the time of Thothmes III., and contains
the names of sixty-one of his ancestors. They are not
arranged in any chronological order, but the tablet is of the
highest historical importance, for it records the names of
some of the rulers from the XIIIth to the XVIIth
dynasties, and gives the names of those of the XIth
dynasty more completely than any other list.

II. Annals of Egyptian Kings inscribed upon the
walls of temples, obelisks, and buildings. The narrative of
such inscriptions is very simple, and practically these records
merely represent itineraries in which the names of conquered
and tributary lands and people are given; incidentally facts
of interest are noted down. As the day and month and
regnal years of the king by whom these expeditions were
undertaken are generally given, these inscriptions throw
much light on history. The lists of tribute are also useful,
for they show what the products of the various countries
were. The poetical version*

* See the notice of the official Egyptian account on page 478.

of the history of the famous
battle of Rameses II. against the Kheta by the poet Pen-ta-urt
is a pleasant variety of historical narrative. The inscription
on the Stele †

† Preserved at Gîzeh. See page 583.

of Piānkhi, the Ethiopian conqueror of Egypt,
is decidedly remarkable for the minute details of his fights,
the speeches made by himself and his conquered foes, and
the mention of many facts ‡

‡ For example, it is stated that when Piānkhi had taken possession
of the storehouses and treasury of Nemart (Nimrod) his foe, he went
afterwards into the stables, and found that the horses there had been
kept short of food. Bursting into a rage, he turned to Nimrod and
said, “by my life, by my darling Rā, who revives my nostrils with
life, to have kept my horses hungry is more heinous in my sight
than any other offence which thou hast committed against me.”
Mariette, Monuments Divers, pl. 3, 11. 65, 66.

which are not commonly noticed
by Egyptian annalists. The vigour and poetical nature of
the narrative are also very striking.

III. Historical Stelae and Papyri, which briefly relate
in chronological order the various expeditions undertaken
by the king for whom they were made. Egyptian kings
occasionally caused summaries of their principal conquests
and of the chief events of their reign to be drawn up;
examples of these are (a) the stele of Thothmes III.,*

* Preserved at Gîzeh; see page 587.

and
(b) the last section of the great Harris Papyrus, in which
Rameses III. reviews all the good works which he has
brought to a successful issue to the glory of the gods of
Egypt and for the benefit of her inhabitants. This wonderful
papyrus measures 135 feet by 17 inches, and was found
in a box in the temple at Medînet Habû, built by Rameses
III.; it is now in the British Museum.

IV. Decrees, Scarabs, Statues of Kings and
Private Persons are fruitful sources of information about
historical, religious, and chronological subjects.

V. Biblical notices about Egypt and allusions to events
of Egyptian history.

VI. The Cuneiform Inscriptions. In 1887 about
310 tablets †

† See the description of the Gîzeh Museum, pp. 592-595.

inscribed in cuneiform were found at Tell
el-Amarna. The inscriptions relate to a period of Egyptian
history which falls in the fifteenth century B.C., and
they are letters from the kings of Babylon, and cities of
Mesopotamia and Phaenicia relating to marriages, offensive
and defensive alliances, military matters, etc., etc., and
reports on the rebellions and wars which took place at that
time, addressed to Amenophis III. and to his son Khut-en-āten
or Amenophis IV. The Babylonian king who writes
is called Kurigalzu. Thothmes III. had carried his victorious
arms into Mesopotamia, and one of his successors,
Amenophis III., delighted to go there and shoot the lions

with which the country abounded. During one of these
hunting expeditions he fell in love with the lady

Thi (in cuneiform

), the daughter of
Iuạa

and Thuạa

, and
married her, and he brought her to Egypt, with another
wife named

Kilịipa (in cuneiform

Gi-lu-khi-pa), accompanied by 317 of her
attendants. It will require time to settle the historical and
philological difficulties which are raised by these tablets, but
the examination of them already made has thrown most
valuable light upon the social condition of Egypt and of
other countries. One of the tablets is written in the
language of Mitani, and others are inscribed with cuneiform
characters in a language which is at present unknown; and
some of them have dockets in hieratic which state from what
country they were brought. The discovery of these tablets
shows that there must have been people at the court of
Amenophis III. who understood the cuneiform characters,
and that the officers in command over towns in Phaenicia
subject to the rule of Egypt could, when occasion required,
write their despatches in cuneiform. The greater part of
these tablets are now in the Museums of London and
Berlin, some are at the Gîzeh Museum, and a few are in
private hands. Summaries of the contents of those
preserved in the British Museum are given in the Tell
el-Amarna Tablets (Bezold—Budge), London, 1892; and for
translations of most of the tablets of the “find,” see the Tell
el-Amarna Letters, by H. Winckler, London and Berlin, 1894.

The Assyrian kings Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Assurbanipal
marched against Egypt; Tirhakah defeated Sennacherib
at Eltekeh, but was defeated by Esarhaddon, the
son of Sennacherib, who drove him back into Ethiopia.
Esarhaddon's son, Assurbanipal, also attacked Tirhakah and

defeated him. Thebes was captured, and Egypt was
divided into twenty-two provinces, over some of which
Assyrian viceroys were placed. A fragment of a Babylonian
tablet states that Nebuchadnezzar II. marched
into Egypt.

VII. The Greek and Roman writers upon Egypt
are many; and of these the best known are Herodotus,
Manetho, and Diodorus Siculus. Herodotus devotes the
whole of the second and the beginning of the third book
of his work to a history of Egypt and the Egyptians, and his
is the oldest Greek treatise on the subject known to us.
In spite of the attacks made upon his work during the
last few years, the evidence of the hieroglyphic inscriptions
which are being deciphered year after year shows that on
the whole his work is trustworthy. A work more valuable
than that of Herodotus is the Egyptian history of Manetho
(still living in B.C. 271) of Sebennytus, who is said by
Plutarch to have been a contemporary of Ptolemy I.; his
work, however, was written during the reign of Ptolemy II.
Philadelphus (B.C. 286-247). According to words put into
his mouth, he was chief priest and scribe in one of the
temples of Egypt, and he appears to have been perfectly
acquainted with the ancient Egyptian language and literature.
He had also had the benefit of a Greek education, and
was therefore peculiarly fitted to draw up in Greek for
Ptolemy Philadelphus a history of Egypt and her religion.
The remains of the great Egyptian history of Manetho are
preserved in the polemical treatise of Josephus against
Apion, in which a series of passages of Egyptian history
from the XVth to the XIXth dynasties is given, and in the
list of the dynasties, together with the number of years of
the reign of each king, given by Africanus and Eusebius
on his authority. At the beginning of his work Manetho
gives a list of gods and demi-gods who ruled over Egypt
before Menes, the first human king of Egypt; the thirty

dynasties known to us he divides into three sections:—
I-XI, XII-XIX, and XX-XXX. Diodorus Siculus,
who visited Egypt about B.C. 57, wrote a history of the
country, its people and its religion, based chiefly upon the
works of Herodotus and Hekataeus. He was not so able a
writer nor so accurate an observer as Herodotus, and his
work contains many blunders. Other important ancient
writers on Egypt are Strabo,*

* About A.D. 15.

Chaeremon,†

† About A.D. 50.

Josephus,‡

‡ About A. D. 75.

Plutarch §

§ About A.D. 100.

and Horapollo.|

| About A.D. 400.

According to Manetho, there reigned over Egypt before
Menā, or Menes, the first mortal king of that country, a
number of beings who may be identified with the Shesu
Ḥeru, or “followers of Horus”; of their deeds and
history nothing is known. Some have believed that
during their rule Egypt was divided into two parts, each
ruled by its own king; and others have thought that the
whole of Upper and Lower Egypt was divided into a large
series of small, independent principalities, which were
united under one head in the person of Menes. There
is, however, no support to be obtained from the inscriptions
for either of these theories. The kings of Egypt
following after the mythical period are divided into thirty
dynasties. For the sake of convenience, Egyptian history
is divided into three periods:—I, the Ancient Empire,
which includes the first eleven dynasties; II, the Middle
Empire, which includes the next nine dynasties (XIIth-XXth);
and, III, the New Empire, which includes the
remaining ten dynasties, XXIst-XXXth, one being Persian.
The rule of the Saïte kings was followed by that of the
Persians, Macedonians, Ptolemies and Romans.
The rule of the Arabs which began A.D. 641, ended A.D.
1517, when the country was conquered by the Turks; since
this time Egypt has been nominally a pashalik of Turkey.

The date assigned to the first dynasty is variously given
by different scholars: by Champollion-Figeac it is B.C. 5867,
by Böckh 5702, by Bunsen 3623, by Lepsius 3892, by
Lieblein 3893, by Mariette 5004, and by Brugsch 4400.
As far as can be seen, there is much to be said in favour
of that given by Brugsch, and his dates are adopted
throughout in this book.

[Back to top]

HISTORICAL SUMMARY.

ANCIENT EMPIRE.

Dynasty I, from This.

B.C.
4400.	Menà,* the first human king of Egypt, founded Memphis, having turned aside the course of the Nile, and established a temple service there. * See under Abydos, page 356.
4366.	Tetà, wrote a book on anatomy, and continued buildings at Memphis.
4266.	Semti . Some papyri say that the 64th Chapter of the Book of the Dead was “found” in his time.

Dynasty II, from This.

4133.	Neter-baiu,† in whose reign an earthquake swallowed up many people at Bubastis. † Or
4100.	Kakau, in whose days the worship of Apis at Memphis, and that of Mnevis at Heliopolis, was continued.
4066.	Ba-en-neter, in whose reign, according to John of Antioch, the Nile flowed with honey for eleven days. During the reign of this king the succession of females to the throne of Egypt was declared valid.
4000.	Sent. Sepulchral stelae of this king's priests are preserved at Oxford and at Gîzeh; see paèe 572.
—	Nefer-ka-Seker, in whose reign an eclipse appears to be mentioned.

Dynasty III, from Memphis.

3900.

Tcheser, the builder of the famous “Step Pyramid”
at Saịịâra.

Dynasty IV, from Memphis.

B.C.
3766.	Seneferu. Important contemporaneous monuments of this king exist. During his reign the copper mines of Wâdî Ma‘ârah were worked. He built the pyramid of Mêdûm.
3733.	Khufu (Cheops), who fought with the people of Sinai; he built the first pyramid of Gîzeh.
3666.	Khā-f-Rā (Chephren), the builder of the second pyramid at Gîzeh.
3633.	Men-kau-Rā (Mycerinus), the builder of the third pyramid at Gîzeh. The fragments of his coffin are in the British Museum. Some copies of the Book of the Dead say that the 64th chapter of that work was compiled during the reign of this king.

Dynasty V, from Elephantine.

3533.	Saḥu-Rā, the builder of a pyramid at Abuṣîr.
3443.	Rā-en-user, the builder of a pyramid at Abuṣîr.
3366.	Ṭeṭ-ka-Rā. The Precepts of Ptaḥ-ḥetep were written during the reign of this king.
3333.	Unas, whose pyramid at Saịịâra was explored in 1881.

Dynasty VI, from Memphis.

3266.	Tetā, the builder of a pyramid at Ṣaịịâra.
3233.	Pepi-meri-Rā, the builder of a pyramid at Ṣaịịâra.
3200.	Mer-en-Rā.
3166.	Nefer-ka-Rā.
3133	(?). Nit-ạqert (Nitocris), “the beautiful woman with rosy cheeks.”
3100.	Dynasties VII and X, from Memphis . Nefer-ka. Nefer-Seḥ…. Ạb. Nefer-kau-Rā. Kharthi.

B.C.
3033.	Nefer-ka-Rā.
3000.	Nefer-ka-Rā-Nebi.
2966.	Ṭeṭ-ka-Rā….
2933.	Nefer-ka-Rā-Khenṭu.
2900.	Mer-en-Ḥeru.
2866.	Se-nefer-ka-Rā.
2833.	Ka-en-Rā.
2800.	Nefer-ka-Rā-Tererl.
2766.	Nefer-ka-Rā-Ḥeru.
2733.	Nefer-ka-Rā Pepi Seneb.
2700.	Nefer-ka-Rā-Ạnnu.
2633.	Nefer-kau-Rā.
2600.	Nefer-kau-Ḥeru.
2533.	Nefer-āri-ka-Rā.* * These names are obtained from the TABLET OF ABYDOS; see page 3.

Dynasty XI, from Diospolis, or Thebes.

It is not at present possible to arrange in chronological
order the names of the kings of this dynasty, although
several of them are well known. Names common to several
of them are Ạntef and Menthu-ḥetep. Some of the kings
appear to have ruled for long periods, but their reigns were
on the whole uneventful; the burial place of the kings of
this dynasty is at Drah abu'l-Neịịah.

2500.

Se-ānkh-ka-Rā. This king is known to us through
an inscription at Ḥamâmât, which states that he sent
an expedition to the land of Punt; this shows
that at that early date an active trade must have
been carried on across the Arabian desert between
Egypt and Arabia. The other kings of the XIth
dynasty bore the names of Ạntef-āa, Ạn-ạntef,
Ạmentuf, Ạn-āa, and Mentu-ḥetep. Se-ānkh-ka-Rā
appears to have been the immediate predecessor of
the XIIth dynasty.

MIDDLE EMPIRE.

Dynasty XII, from Diospolis, or Thebes.

B.C.
2466.	Ạmenemḥāt I. ascended the throne of Egypt after hard fighting; he conquered the Uaua, a Libyan tribe that lived near Korosko in Nubia, and wrote a series of instructions for his son Usertsen I. The story of Senehet was written during this reign.
2433.	Usertsen I. made war against the tribes of Ethiopia; he erected granite obelisks and built largely at Heliopolis. He and his father built pyramids at Lisht, a necropolis situated about 30 miles south of Cairo.
2400.	Ạmenemḥāt II. Khnemu-ḥetep, son of Neḥerạ, whose tomb is at Beni-hasân, lived during the reign of this king.
2366.	Usertsen II. He built a pyramid at Illahûn.
2333.	Usertsen III.
2300.	Ạmenemḥāt III. During this king's reign special attention was paid to the rise of the Nile, and canals were dug and sluices made for irrigating the country; in this reign the famous Lake Moeris, in the district called by the Arabs El-Fayyûm, * was built. This rise of the Nile was marked on the rocks at Semneh, about thirty-five miles above the second cataract, and the inscriptions are visible to this day. He built a pyramid at Ḥawâra and the Labyrinth. * In Arabic , from the Coptic , “the lake,”
2266.	Ạmenemḥāt IV.
2233.	Dynasties XIII-XVII. The so-called Hyksos Period.

According to Manetho these dynasties were as follows:—

Dynasty XIII, from Thebes, 60 kings in 453 years.
Dynasty XIV, from Xoïs,† 76 kings in 484 years.

† A town in the Delta.
Dynasty XV, Hyksos, 6 kings in 260 years.
Dynasty XVI, Hyksos, 10 kings in 251 years.
Dynasty XVII, from Thebes, 10 kings in 10 years.

Unfortunately there are no monuments whereby we can
correct or modify these figures. The number of years
assigned to the rule of the XIIIth and XIVth dynasties
seems excessive. The Hyksos appear to have made their
way from the countries in and to the west of Mesopotamia
into Egypt. They joined with their countrymen, who had
already settled in the Delta, and were able to defeat the
native kings; it is thought that their rule lasted 500 years,
and that Joseph arrived in Egypt towards the end of this
period. The name Hyksos is derived from the Egyptian

Ḥequ Shaạsu, i.e., “princes
of the Shasu,” or nomad tribes on the east and north-east
of Egypt. The principal Hyksos kings of the XVIth
dynasty are Ạpepạ I. and Ạpepạ II.; Nubti and the native
Egyptian princes ruled under them. Under Se-qenen-Rā,
a Theban ruler of the XVIIth dynasty, a war broke out
between the Egyptians and the Hyksos, which continued
for many years, and resulted in the expulsion of the foreign
rulers.

Dynasty XVIII, from Thebes.

B.C.
1700.	Ạāḥmes I., who re-established the independence of Egypt.
1666.	Ạmen-ḥetep (Amenophis) I.
1633.	Teḥuti-mes (Thothmes) I.
1600.	Teḥuti-mes (Thothmes) II.
1600.	Ḥāt-shepset, sister of Thothmes II. She sent an expedition to Punt.
1600.	Teḥuti-mes (Thothmes) III. made victorious expeditions into Mesopotamia. He was one of the greatest kings that ever ruled over Egypt.
1566.	Ạmen-ḥetep II.
1533.	Teḥuti-mes IV.

1500.

Ạmen-ḥetep III. warred successfully in the lands
to the south of Egypt and in Asia. He made it a
custom to go into Mesopotamia to shoot lions, and,
while there he married a sister and daughter of
Tushratta, the king of Mitani, and a sister and a
daughter of Kadashman-Bêl (?), king of Karaduniyash;
he afterwards made proposals of marriage
for another daughter of this latter king called
Sukharti. The correspondence and despatches
from kings of Babylon, Mesopotamia, and
Phaenicia were found in 1887 at Tell el-Amarna ,
and large portions of them are now preserved in
the Museums of London, Berlin, and Gîzeh.

Ạmen-ḥetep IV. or Khu-en-Ạten (“brilliance, or
glory of the solar disk”), the founder of the city Khuạten,
the ruins of which are called Tell el-Amarna ,
and of the heresy of the disk-worshippers. He
was succeeded by a few kings who held the same
religious opinions as himself.

Dynasty XIX, from Thebes.

B.C.
1400.	Rameses I.
1366.	Seti I. conquered the rebellious tribes in Western Asia, and built the Memnonium at Abydos. He was famous as a builder, and attended with great care to the material welfare of his kingdom. He is said to have built a canal from the Nile to the Red Sea.
1333.	Rameses II. subjugated Nubia and Mesopotamia. He was a great builder, and a liberal patron of the arts and sciences; learned men like Pentaurt were attached to his court. He is famous as one of the oppressors of the Israelites.
1300.	Seti Meneptaḥ I. is thought to have been the Pharaoh of the Exodus; his mummy was found in the tomb of Amenophis II. at Thebes.

NEW EMPIRE.

Dynasty XX, from Thebes.

1200.	Rameses III. was famous for his buildings, and for the splendid gifts which he made to the temples of Thebes, Abydos and Heliopolis. His reign represented an era of great commercial prosperity.
1166-1133.	Rameses IV.-XII.

Dynasty XXI, from Tanis and Thebes.

B.C.	I. Tanis.	II. Thebes.
1100- 1000.	Sa-Mentu. Pasebkhānu I. Ạmen-em-ạpt. Pasebkhānu II.	Ḥer-Ḥeru, the first priest-king. Pi-ānkhi. Pai-net'em I-III.

Dynasty XXII, Libyans who ruled the country from
Bubastis (Tell-Basṭa).

966.	Shashanq (Shishak) I. (See 1 Kings, xiv. 25-28; 2 Chron., xii. 2-13) besieged Jerusalem, and having conquered it, pillaged the Temple and carried away much spoil.
933.	Uasarken I.	Under the rule of these kings Egypt finally lost most of her foreign possessions, and the feebleness of their rule made her an easy prey for the warlike.
900.	Takeleth I.
866.	Uasarken II.
833.	Shashanq II.
	Takeleth II.
	Shashanq III.
800.	Pamai
	Shashanq IV.

Dynasty XXIII, from Tanis.

766.	Peṭā-Bast.
	Uasarken III.

Dynasty XXIV, from Saïs (Sâ el-Ḥagar).

733.	Bak-en-ren-f (Bocchoris).

Dynasty XXV, from Ethiopia.

B.C.
700.	Shabaka (Sabaco). See 2 Kings, xvii. 4. Shabataka.
693.	Taharqa (Tirhakah, 2 Kings, xix. 9) is famous for having conquered Sennacherib and delivered Hezekiah; he was, however, defeated by Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal, the son and grandson of Sennacherib. Tirhakah's son-in-law, Urdamanah, was also defeated by the Assyrians.

Dynasty XXVI, from Saïs.

666.	Psemthek I. (Psammetichus) allowed Greeks to settle in the Delta, and employed Greek soldiers to fight for him.
612.	Nekau II. (Necho) defeated Josiah, king of Judah, and was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar II. son of Nabopolassar, king of Babylon. See 2 Kings, xxiii, 29 ff; Jeremiah xlvi. 2.
596.	Psammetichus II.
591.	Uah-ạb-Rā, Apries (Hophra of the Bible, Gr. Apries) marched to the help of Zedekiah, king of Judah, who was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar II. His army rebelled against him, and he was dethroned; Amāsis, a general in his army, then succeeded to the throne. See Jeremiah, xliv. 30.
572.	Ạāḥmes or Amāsis II. favoured the Greeks, and granted them many privileges; in his reign Naucratis became a great city.
528.	Psammetichus III. was defeated at Pelusium by Cambyses the Persian, and taken prisoner; he was afterwards slain for rebellion against the Persians.

Dynasty XXVII, from Persia.

527.	Cambyses marched against the Ethiopians and the inhabitants of the Oases.

B.C.
521.	Darius I. (Hystaspes) endeavoured to open up the ancient routes of commerce; he established a coinage, and adopted a conciliatory and tolerant system of government, and favoured all attempts to promote the welfare of Egypt.
486.	Xerxes I.
465.	Artaxerxes I., during whose reign the Egyptians revolted, headed by Amyrtaeus.
425.	Darius II. (Nothus), during whose reign the Egyptians revolted successfully, and a second Amyrtaeus became king of Egypt.
405.	Artaxerxes II.

Dynasty XXVIII, from Saïs.

Ạmen-ruṭ (Amyrtaeus), reigned six years.

Dynasty XXIX, from Mendes.

399.	Naifāauruṭ I.
393.	Haịar.
380.	P-se-mut.
379.	Naifāauruṭ II.

Dynasty XXX, from Sebennytus.

378.	Nekht-Heru-heb (Nectanebus I.) defeated the Persians at Mendes.
360.	T'e-ḥer surrendered to the Persians.
358.	Nekht-neb-f (Nectanebus II.) devoted himself to the pursuit of magic, and neglected his empire; when Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) marched against him, he fled from his kingdom, and the Persians again ruled Egypt.

PERSIANS.

B.C.
340.	Artaxerxes III. (Ochus).
338.	Arses.
336.	Darius III. (Codomannus) conquered by Alexander the Great at Issus.

MACEDONIANS.

332.	Alexander the Great founded Alexandria. He showed his toleration of the Egyptian religion by sacrificing to the god Ạmen of Libya.

PTOLEMIES.*

* For the chronology of the Ptolemies, see Lepsius, Königsbuch,
Synoptische Tafeln 9.

323.	Ptolemy I. Soter, son of Lagus, became king of Egypt after Alexander's death. He founded the famous Alexandrian Library, and encouraged learned Greeks to make Alexandria their home; he died B.C. 284.
285.	Ptolemy II. Philadelphus built the Pharos, founded Berenice and Arsinoë, caused Manetho's Egyptian history to be compiled, and the Greek version of the Old Testament (Septuagint) to be made.
247.	Ptolemy III. Euergetes I. The stele of Canopus † was set up in the ninth year of his reign; he obtained possession of all Syria, and was a patron of the arts and sciences. † This important stele, preserved at Gizeh, see page 590, is inscribed in hieroglyphics, Greek and demotic with a decree made at Canopus by the priesthood, assembled there from all parts of Egypt, in honour of Ptolemy III. It mentions the great benefits which he had conferred upon Egypt, and states what festivals are to be celebrated in his honour and in that of Berenice, etc., and concludes with a resolution ordering that a copy of this inscription in hieroglyphics, Greek and demotic shall be placed in every large temple of Egypt. Two other copies of this work are known.

B.C.
222.	Ptolemy IV. Philopator defeated Antiochus, and founded the temple at Edfû.
205.	Ptolemy V. Epiphanes. During his reign the help of the Romans against Antiochus was asked for by the Egyptians. Coelesyria and Palestine were lost to Egypt. He was poisoned B.C. 182, and his son Ptolemy VI. Philometor, died in that same year. The Rosetta Stone was set up in the eighth year of the reign of this king.
—	Ptolemy VI. Philometor did not reign a full year.
181.	Ptolemy VII. Eupator was taken prisoner at Pelusium by Antiochus IV., B.C. 171, and died B.C. 146. He reigned alone at first, then conjointly (B.C. 170—165) with Ptolemy IX. Euergetes II. (also called Physcon), and finally having gone to Rome on account of his quarrel with Physcon, he reigned as sole monarch of Egypt (B.C. 165). Physcon was overthrown B.C. 132, reigned again B.C. 125, and died B.C. 117.
170.	Ptolemy VIII. Neos Philopator is murdered by Physcon.
146.	Ptolemy IX. Euergetes II. (Physcon).
117.	Ptolemy X. Soter II. Philometor II. (Lathyrus), reigns jointly with Cleopatra III. Ptolemy X. is banished (B.C. 106), his brother Ptolemy XI. Alexander I. is made co-regent, but afterwards banished (B.C. 89) and slain (B.C. 87); Ptolemy X. is recalled, and dies B.C. 81.
88.	Ptolemy XII. Alexander II. is killed.
81.	Ptolemy XIII. Alexander II. is slain.
81.	Ptolemy XIII. Neos Dionysos (Auletes), ascends the throne; dies B.C. 52.

B. C.
52.	Ptolemy XIV. Dionysos II. and Cleopatra VII. are, according to the will of Ptolemy XIII., to marry each other; the Roman senate to be their guardian. Ptolemy XIV. banishes Cleopatra, and is a party to the murder of Pompey, their guardian, who visits Egypt after his defeat at Pharsalia. Caesar arrives in Egypt to support Cleopatra (B.C. 48); Ptolemy XIV. is drowned; Ptolemy XV., brother of Cleopatra VII., is appointed her co-regent by Caesar (B.C. 47); he is murdered at her wish, and her son by Caesar, Ptolemy XVI. Caesarion, is named co-regent (B.C. 45).
42.	Antony orders Cleopatra to appear before him, and is seduced by her charms; he kills himself, and Cleopatra dies by the bite of an asp. Egypt becomes a Roman province B.C. 30.

ROMANS.

Caesar Augustus becomes master of the Roman Empire.
Cornelius Gallus is the first prefect of Egypt. Under the
third prefect, Aelius Gallus, Candace, queen of the Ethiopians,
invades Egypt, but is defeated.

In the consulship of Marcus Silanus and Lucius
Norbanus, Germanicus set out (A.D. 19) for Egypt to
study its antiquities. His ostensible motive, however,
was solicitude for the province. He sailed up the Nile
from the city of Canopus, which was founded by the
Spartans because Canopus, pilot of one of their ships,
had been buried there, when Menelaus on his return to
Greece was driven into a distant sea and to the shores of
Libya. “Next he visited the vast ruins of ancient Thebes.
There yet remained on the towering piles Egyptian inscriptions,
with a complete account of the city's past grandeur.

One of the aged priests, who was desired to interpret the
language of his country, related how once there had dwelt
in Thebes 700,000 men of military age, and how with such
an army Rhamses conquered Libya, Ethiopia, Media,
Persia, Bactria, and Scythia, and held under his sway
the countries inhabited by the Syrians, Armenians, and
their neighbours, the Cappadocians, from the Bithynian to
the Lycian Sea. There was also to be read what tributes
were imposed on these nations, the weight of silver and
gold, the tale of arms and horses, the gifts of ivory and of
perfumes to the temples, and the amount of grain and
supplies furnished by each people, a revenue as magnificent
as is now exacted by the might of Parthia or the power
of Rome. But Germanicus also bestowed attention on
other wonders. Chief of these were the stone image of
Memnon, which, when struck by the sun's rays, gives out
the sound of a human voice; the pyramids, rising up like
mountains amid almost impassable wastes of shifting sand;
raised by the emulation and vast wealth of kings; the lake
(i.e., Moeris) hollowed out of the earth to be a receptacle for
the Nile's overflow; and elsewhere the river's narrow
channel and profound depth which no line of the explorer
can penetrate. He then came to Elephantine and Syene,
formerly the limits of the Roman empire, which now extends
to the Red Sea.” — Tacitus, book ii., §§ 59-61 (Church and
Brodribb).

A.D.
14.	Tiberius. In his reign Germanicus visited Egypt.
37.	Caligula. In his reign a persecution of the Jews took place.
41.	Claudius.
55.	Nero. In his reign Christianity was first preached in Egypt by Saint Mark. The Blemmyes made raids upon the southern frontier of Egypt.
69.	Vespasian. Jerusalem destroyed A.D. 70.

A.D.
82.	Domitian causes temples to Isis and Serapis to be built at Rome.
98.	Trajan. The Nile and Red Sea Canal (Amnis Trajânus) re-opened.
117.	Hadrian. Visited Egypt twice.
138.	Antoninus Pius.
161.	Marcus Aurelius caused the famous Itinerary to be made.
180.	Commodus.
193.	Septimius Severus.
211.	Caracalla visited Egypt, and caused a large number of young men to be massacred at Alexandria.
217.	Macrinus.
218.	Elagabalus.
249.	Decius. Christians persecuted.
253.	Valerianus. Christians persecuted.
260.	Gallienus. Persecution of Christians stayed. Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, invades Egypt A.D. 268.
270.	Aurelian. Zenobia becomes Queen of Egypt for a short time, but is dethroned A.D. 273.
276.	Probus.
284.	Diocletian. “Pompey's Pillar” erected A.D. 302, persecution of Christians A.D. 304. The Copts date the era of the Martyrs from the day of Diocletian's accession to the throne (August 29).
324.	Constantine the Great, the Christian Emperor, in whose reign, A.D. 325, the Council of Nicaea was held. At this council it was decided that Christ and His Father were of one and the same nature, as taught by Athanasius; and the doctrine of Arius,* that Christ and God were only similar in nature, was decreed heretical. * “He was a most expert logician, but perverted his talents to evil purposes, and had the audacity to preach what no one before him had ever suggested, namely, that the Son of God was made out of that which had no prior existence; that there was a period of time in which He existed not; that, as possessing free will, He was capable of virtue, or of vice; and that He was created and made.” — Sozomen, Eccles. Hist., Bk. I., ch. 15. For the statement of the views of Arius by his opponent Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, see his letter addressed to the Catholic Church generally, in Socrates, Eccles. Hist., Bk. I., chap. vi.

337.	Constantius. George of Cappadocia, an Arian, is made Bishop of Alexandria.
361.	Julian, the Apostate.
379.	Theodosius I., the Great, proclaims Christianity the religion of his empire. The Arians and followers of the ancient Egyptian religion were persecuted.

THE BYZANTINES.

395.

Arcadius, Emperor of the East. The Anthropomorphites,
† who affirmed that God was of human form,
destroyed the greater number of their opponents.

† The leader of this persecution was Theophilus, Bishop of Alexandria,
who, before he discovered that the majority of the Egyptian
monks were Anthropomorphites, was himself opposed to this body.

408.

Theodosius II. In his reign the doctrines of
Nestorius were condemned by Cyril of Alexandria.
Nestorius, because of the two natures of Christ, inferred
also two persons, a human and a divine. “In
the Syrian school, Nestorius had been taught (A.D.
429-431) to abhor the confusion of the two natures,
and nicely to discriminate the humanity of his
master Christ from the Divinity of the Lord Jesus.
The Blessed Virgin he revered as the mother of
Christ, but his ears were offended with the rash

	and recent title of mother of God, which had been insensibly adopted since the origin of the Arian controversy. From the pulpit of Constantinople, a friend of the patriarch,* and afterwards the patriarch himself, repeatedly preached against the use, or the abuse, of a word unknown to the apostles, unauthorized by the church, and which could only tend to alarm the timorous, to mislead the simple, to amuse the profane, and to justify, by a seeming resemblance, the old genealogy of Olympus. In his calmer moments Nestorius confessed, that it might be tolerated or excused by the union of the two natures, and the communication of their idioms (i.e., a transfer of properties of each nature to the other—of infinity to man, passibility to God, etc.): but he was exasperated, by contradiction, to disclaim the worship of a newborn, an infant Deity, to draw his inadequate similes from the conjugal or civil partnerships of life, and to describe the manhood of Christ, as the robe, the instrument, the tabernacle of his Godhead.”—Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. 47. * Anastasius of Antioch, who said, “Let no one call Mary Theotokos; for Mary was but a woman; and it is impossible that God should be born of a woman.”—Socrates, Eccles. Hist., Bk. VII., chap. xxxii.
450.	Marcianus. The Monophysite doctrine of Eutyches was condemned at the Council of Chalcedon, A.D. 451. Eutyches, from the one person of Christ, inferred also one nature, viz., the Divine—the human having been absorbed into it. Silko invaded Egypt with his Nubian followers.
474.	Zeno. He issued the Henoticon, an edict which, while affirming the Incarnation, made no attempt to decide the difficult question whether Christ possessed a single or a double nature.

A.D.
491.	Anastasius.
527.	Justinian. The Monophysites separated from the Melkites, or “Royalists,” and chose their own patriarch; they were afterwards called Copts, .* * The name given to the native Christians of Egypt by the Arabs, from for Αιγυπτιος.
610.	Heraclius. The Persians under Chosroes held Egypt for ten years; they were expelled by Heraclius A.D. 629.

MUHMMADANS.

640.

‘Amr ibn al-‘Aṣi conquers Egypt. ‘Amr began his
expedition against Egypt with about 4,000 men,
but the Khalîfa Omar sent him reinforcements,
and by the time the famous general arrived at
‘Arîsh his army numbered 16,000 men. Having
vanquished the garrison at Pelusium, he marched
along the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, and passed
by way of Bubastis to Heliopolis. A truce of four
days was obtained for George, the Maịawịas,
the governor of Upper , by the Coptic
Patriarch Benjamin, and it seems that the Egyptian
official, who was a Jacobite Copt, and a hater
of the ruling class in Egypt, greatly aided the
Arab general. The Arabs moved on towards
Memphis, and soon after, under Zubêr, ‘Amr's
colleague, made a general assault upon the fortress
of Babylon, scaled the walls, and so became masters
of the capital of Upper Egypt. George, the
Maịawịas, arranged the details of the capitulation,
and a capitation tax of two dînârs for every male
adult, besides other payments. ‘Amr then marched
on Alexandria, and as the Greeks took to their

	ships and fled, George, the Maịawịas, who had gone to Alexandria after the fall of Babylon, offered to capitulate on the same terms as he had made for that city. ‘Amr returned to Memphis, and made the head-quarters of the army at Fosṭâṭ, near which the modern town of Cairo has grown up. ‘Amr refused to possess himself of any land, and he was not even given a site whereon to build a house. One of his most useful works was to reopen the old canal which ran from Belbês through the Wâdî Ṭûmîlât to the Bitter Lakes, and thence to the Red Sea; by this means it was possible to convey corn which had been loaded into ships at Memphis from that city into Yenbô, the port of Medîna in Arabia, without transhipment. This canal was in use for about eighty years, when it became silted up. After the second siege of Alexandria (A.D. 646) the Arabs made Fosṭaṭ the capital of Egypt.
A.D.
644.	‘Othmân.
750.	Merwân II., the last of the ‘Omayyade dynasty, was put to death in Egypt.
750-870.	The ‘Abbasides rule over Egypt.
786.	Harûn ar-Rashîd.
813.	Mâmûn visited Egypt, and opened the Great Pyramid.
870.	Aḥmad ibn-Ṭulûn governs Egypt.
884.	Khamârûyeh enlarges Fosṭât.
969-1171.	The Fâṭimites govern Egypt, with Maṣr el-Ḳâhira* (Cairo) as their residence. *
975.	Al-‘Azîz, son of Mu‘izz, great grandson of ‘Obêdallâh.
996.	Ḥâkim, son of ‘Azîz, founder of the Druses. This remarkable prince wished to be considered God incarnate.

A.D.
1020.	Ẓâhir, son of Ḥâkim.
1036.	Abu Tamîm el-Mustanṣir.
1094.	Musta‘li, son of el-Mustanṣir, captured Jerusalem (A.D. 1096), but was defeated by the Crusaders under Godfrey de Bouillon.
1160.	‘Aḍîd Ledînallâh, the last of the Fâṭimites.
1171.	Ṣalâḥeddîn (Saladin) defeated the Crusaders at Ḥittîn, and recaptured Jerusalem.
1193.	Melik al-‘Adîl.
1218.	Melik al-Kâmil, the builder of Manṣûrah.
1240.	Melik aṣ-Ṣâleḥ, the usurper, captured Jerusalem, Damascus, and Ascalon. Louis IX. of France, attacked and captured Damietta, but was made prisoner at Manṣûrah, with all his army.
1250-1380.	The Baḥrite Mamelukes.
1260.	Bêbars.
1277.	Ḳalâûn.
1291.	Al-Ashraf Khalîl captured Acre.
1346.	Ḥasan.
1382-1517.	Burgite or Circassian Mamelukes.
1382.	Barịûị.
1422.	Bursbey.
1468.	Ḳâit Bey.
1501.	Al-Ghûri.
1517.	Ṭûmân Bey is deposed by Selim I. of Constantinople, and Egypt becomes a Turkish Pashalik. Soon after his conquest of Egypt, Selim divided the country into twenty-four provinces, over each of which he appointed a local governor; these governors were placed in subjection to a Pâsha, who, with the help of a council of seven Turkish officials, ruled the country. One of the twenty-four governors was elected to the important office of “Shêkh al-balad,” or governor of the metropolis, a post which was greatly coveted by his colleagues when they saw what frequent opportunities were enjoyed by him of “squeezing” the natives, and of making himself a rich man. This system worked well for a time, but as the power of Turkey declined, so the power of her nominees the Pâshas of Egypt declined, and at length the twenty-four local governors became the actual rulers of Egypt, for the revenues of the country were in their hands, and they paid the Turkish Pâsha his salary.

1771.	‘Ali Bey, a slave, obtains great power in Egypt. He was accused of entering into a conspiracy against the Sulṭân at Constantinople, and a messenger was sent to Egypt to bring back ‘Ali Bey's head. ‘Ali caught and slew the messenger, and having called his colleagues together, drove out the Pâsha and
1772.	declared Egypt independent. He was poisoned by Muḥammad abu-Dhabad, a man on whom he had showered favours.
1773.	Ismâ‘îl, Ibrâhîm, and Murâd strive for the mastery over Egypt. When Murâd became ruler, a Turkish army invaded Egypt and seized Cairo, and attempted
1790.	to follow the rebel (Murâd) into Upper Egypt
1798.	Napoleon Bonaparte lands near Alexandria with an army of 36,000 men (July 1); storming of Alexandria (July 5); Murâd meets the French in battle at Embâbeh, opposite Cairo, with 60,000 men, but is beaten, and about 15,000 of his men are killed. This fight is commonly called the Battle of the Pyramids. A few days later Nelson destroyed the French fleet in Abuịîr Bay.
1799.	Destruction of the Turkish army by the French at Abuịîr.
1800.	Sir Sydney Smith signs a treaty at Al-‘Arîsh granting General Kléber's army permission to leave Egypt (February 24), but as he had to admit later that he had exceeded his powers, and that the British Government demanded the surrender of the whole French army as prisoners of war, Gen. Kléber attacked the Turks at the village of Maṭarîyeh and is said to have routed 70,000 men, an army six times as large as his own. A few months later Kléber was assassinated, and General Menou became commander-in-chief of the French army in Egypt.

A.D.
1801.	Sir Ralph Abercromby lands at Abuịîr Bay with 17,000 men (March 8); battle of Alexandria and defeat of the French (March 21); the French capitulate at Cairo (June 27); the French capitulate at Alexandria (August 30); evacuation of Egypt by the French (September).
1803.	England restores Egypt to the Turks. As soon as the English left Egypt, severe conflicts took place between two Turkish parties in the country, the Albanians and the Ghuzz; to the former belonged Muḥammad ‘Ali.
1805.	Muḥammad Ali is elected Pâsha of Egypt by the people. His election was afterwards confirmed by the Porte. He was born at Cavalla, a small town on the sea-coast of Albania, in 1769, and he served in the Turkish army at an early age. He was sent with a body of troops to fight against the French, and enjoyed at that time the rank of major (bimbashi); he married the daughter of the governor of his native town, and by her had three sons, Ibrâhîm, Ṭusûn, and Ismâ‘îl.
1807.	General Fraser arrives at Alexandria with 5,000 British troops (March 17), but being unsuccessful in his mission, he evacuated Alexandria on September 14.

1811.	Assassination of the Mamelukes by Muḥammad ‘Ali. These unfortunate men were invited by Muḥammad Ali to attend the investiture of his son Ṭusûn with a garment of state at the Citadel on March 1. When they arrived they were graciously received and led into the Citadel, but as soon as they were inside the gates were closed and Muḥammad ‘Ali's soldiers opened fire upon them; about 470 of the Beys and their followers were murdered, and of all who entered only one is said to have escaped.
1820.	Expedition to the Sûdân led by Ismâ‘îl, who was burned to death by an Arab shêkh called Nimr (1822).
1821.	Muḥammad ‘Ali sends about 8,000 troops to assist the Turks against the Greeks. In 1824 a false Mahdi appeared near Thebes, with about 25,000 followers, but nearly all of them were massacred by the Government troops.
1831.	Invasion of Syria by Ibrâhîm, son of Muḥammad ‘Ali. Acre was invested on November 29, but was not captured until May 27, 1832. Ibrâhîm was victorious at Emesa on July 8, he defeated Rashîd Pâsha, and destroyed the Turkish fleet so completely that Constantinople was in imminent danger of capture. In 1833 the whole of Syria was ceded to Muḥammad ‘Ali, and the rule of his son Ibrâhîm was firm but just. In 1839 war again broke out between the Turks and Egyptians, and two years later Syria was given back to the former. In 1847 Muhammad ‘Ali visited Constantinople, and soon after his reasoning powers became impaired.
1848. 1949.	Ibrâhîm is appointed to rule Egypt on account of his father's failing health. He died after the reign of a few months, but Muḥammad did not die until August 3, 1849. Muḥammad ‘Ali was 1849.an able ruler, and one who had the interest of his country at heart. He created an army and a navy, and established equitable laws for collecting the revenues; he founded colleges of various kinds, and also the famous Bûlâk printing press. There is no doubt that but for the obstacles placed in his way by the British Government, and its interference, he would have freed Egypt entirely from Turkish misrule. His health and spirits were broken by England when she reduced his army to 18,000 men and forbade him to employ his fleet, which rotted away as it lay inactive at Alexandria.

A.D.
1849.	‘Abbâs Pâsha, the son of Ṭusûn, the son of Muḥammad ‘Ali, succeeds Ibrâhîm. He was an incapable ruler, and is said to have been strangled at Benha in July, 1854.
1854.	Sa‘îd Pâsha, the fourth son of Muḥammad ‘Ali, becomes ruler of Egypt. Though not a strong ruler, he was a just man, and he will be chiefly remembered for having abolished a number of cruel monopolies. In many particulars he sought to carry out his father's plans, and first and foremost among these must be mentioned the building of railways in the Delta, and the enlarging of the canals with the view of improving irrigation and of facilitating communication. He it was who supported the project of making the Suez Canal, and he gave M. de Lesseps the concession for it. He founded the Bûlâị Museum, and encouraged excavations on the sites of the ancient cities of Egypt.
1863. 1875 1878 1879	Ismâ‘îl, son of Ibrâhîm Pâsha, and grandson of Muḥammad ‘Ali, becomes the ruler of Egypt; he was born in 1830, and by a decree of the Sulṭân,

1878
1879

dated May 14, 1867, was made “Kheîve” * of
Egypt. In the early years of the rule of this
remarkable man everything seemed to go well,
and the material welfare of the country of Egypt
appeared to be secured. Apparently Ismâ'îl
was straining every nerve to rule his country
according to Western ideas of justice and progress.
Railways were built, schools were opened, trade
of every kind was fostered, and agriculture, upon
which the prosperity of Egypt depends, was
encouraged to a remarkable degree. The making
of the Suez Canal, which was begun in 1859,
was carried on with great zeal under his auspices
(as well as the Fresh Water Canal, which was
begun in 1858 and finished in 1863), and the
work was successfully accomplished in 1869. But
the various enterprises in which he embarked cost
large sums of money, and towards the end of 1875
his liabilities amounted to £77,667,569 sterling.
The salaries of the officials were in arrear, and the
Treasury bills were shunned by all. In this year
he sold 176,602 Suez Canal shares to the British
Government for £3,976,582 sterling; these shares
are now worth over 25 millions sterling. In 1878
M. Waddington, the French Minister of Foreign
Affairs, urged Lord Derbyu to co-operate with
France in an attempt to put the finances of Egypt
on a sounder base, and a Commission of Inquiry
was instituted by the Decree of March 30, under
the presidency of Mr. Rivers Wilson. In April
Ismâ'îl was obliged to find the sum of £1,200,000
to pay the May coupon of the Unified Debt, and

1878
1879

it is said that he did so by the familiar process of
“squeezing” the native. The labours of the
Commission proved that “the land tenures were
so arranged that the wealthier proprietors evaded
a great portion of the land tax, and the system of
forced labour was applied in a way which was
ruinous to the country.” (Royle, Egyptian Campaigns, p. 6.)
Ismâ'îl had built himself palaces
everywhere, and he and his family had become
possessed of one-fifth of the best of the land of
Egypt. The taxes were collected with great
cruelty and injury to the native, and peculation
and bribery were rampant everywhere. In August
of this year a Cabinet was formed with Nubar
Pâsha at the head, with Rivers Wilson as Minister of
Finance, and M. de Blignières as Minister of
Public Works. At this time Ismâ'îl announced
that he was, in future, determined to rule the
country through a Council of Ministers. It must
be remembered that the debt of Egypt at this
time was about £90,000,000. On February 18th,
1879, Nubar Pâsha and his Cabinet were, owing
to the machinations of Ismâ'îl, mobbed by about
2,500 officers and men at the Ministry of Finance,
but at the critical moment Ismâ'îl himself appeared,
and the uproar ceased. At the same time, however,
he told the European Consuls-General that
unless more power were given to him he would not
be answerable for what might happen. Soon after
this he issued a Decree to raise the number of
men in the army to 60,000, and in April he
reduced the interest on the Debt. When Nubar
Pâsha resigned his office, Ismâ'îl appointed his
own son Tawfîk as Prime Minister, but soon after
this he dismissed the whole Cabinet and appointed

1879

a set of native Ministers with Sherîf Pâsha as
Prime Minister. As the result of this truly
Oriental proceeding England and France, after
much hesitation, demanded the deposition of
Ismâ'îl from the Sultân. About this time Ismâ'îl
sent large bribes to the Sultân, but these availed
him nothing, and on June 25th Mr. Lascelles, the
British Consul-General, and M. Tricon, the French
Consul-General, together with Sherîf Pâsha, waited
upon Ismâ'îl to inform him that he must at once
abdicate in obedience to the orders of his sovereign
master, the Sultân, which had been received
from Constantinople. Ismâ'îl of course refused
to do this, but about 10.30 a.m. a telegram
addressed to Ismâ'îl Pâsha, late Khedive of Egypt,
was received at the Abdîn Palace, and it was
taken to him by Sherîf Pâsha, who called upon his
master to resign in favour of Tawfîk Pâsha.
Almost at the same hour Tawfîk received at the
Isma'îlîyyeh Palace a telegram addressed to
Muhammad Tawfîk, Khedive of Egypt, and when
he went to the Abdîn Palace with Sherîf Pâsha,
who had come from there to tell him about the
telegram to Ismâ'îl, he found his father ready to
salute and to wish him better fortune than he himself
had enjoyed. On Monday, the 30th of June,
Ismâ'îl left Egypt in the Khedivial yacht for
Smyrna, taking with him a large sum of money
and about 300 women; in 1887 he settled in
Constantinople, where he died in 1895. Under
Tawfîk's rule the Control was restored, and on
September 4 Rîaz Pâsha became Prime Minister.

*The Arabic form of the title is Khudêwîy.

A.D.
1880.	Commission of Liquidation appointed, and a number of reforms, including a reduction of the taxes, are made.

A.D.
1881.	A rebellion headed by Ahmad Arabi or “Arabi Pâsha” and others breaks out. Arabi was born in the year 1840 in Lower , and was the son of a peasant farmer. He offended Ismâ'îl, and was accused of malpractices and misappropriation of army stores, but this the despot forgave him, and promoted him to the rank of colonel, and gave him a royal slave to wife. Arabi was the leader of a secret society, the aim of which was to free Egypt from foreign interference and control, and to increase the army, and make Tawfîk appoint an Egyptian to the office of Minister of War in the place of Osman Rifki. These facts coming to the notice of the authorities, Arabi and two of his colleagues were ordered to be arrested, and when this had been done, and they had been taken to the barracks in Cairo for examination, the soldiers who were in their companies rushed into the rooms and rescued them. The rebel officers and men next went to the palace where Tawfîk was, and compelled him to grant their requests, and to do away with the cause of their dissatisfaction.
1881.	On February 2 of this year Tawfîk was called upon to form a new Cabinet, and Arabi became Minister of War, and Mahmûd Sami was appointed President of the Council; Arabi was created a Pâsha by the Sultân and his power became paramount. In May a serious dispute arose between Arabi and his colleagues and the Khedive; and on the 19th and 20th three British and three French vessels arrived at Alexandria. On May 25th the Consuls-General of England and France demanded the resignation of Mahmûd Sami's Cabinet, and the retirement of Arabi from the

country. These demands were conceded on the
following day, but shortly after Tawfîị reinstated
Arabi, with the view of maintaining order and
the tranquillity of the country. “On June 3 three
more British and three more French warships
arrived at Alexandria. On June 11 a serious riot
broke out at Alexandria; and the British Consul
was stoned and nearly beaten to death, and Mr.
Ribton, a missionary, and a British naval officer and
two seamen were actually killed.” The massacre
had been threatened by Maḥmûd Sami, and the
riot was pre-arranged, and the native police and
soldiery were parties to the murders of the
Europeans which took place on that day; Mr.
Royle (Egyptian Campaigns, p. 54) estimates the
number of Europeans killed at 150. On June
25 the Sulṭân decorated Arabi with the Grand
Order of the Medjidieh! On July 11 at 7 a.m.
the bombardment of Alexandria was begun by
H.M.S. “Alexandra” firing a shell into the newly
made fortifications of the city, and the other
British ships, “Inflexible,” “Superb,” “Sultan,”
“Téméraire,” “Invincible,” “Monarch,” and
“Penelope,” soon after opened fire. After the
bombardment was over the city was plundered
and set on fire by the natives, and an idea of the
damage done may be gained from the fact that
the Commission of Indemnities awarded the
claimants the sum of £4.341,011 sterling (Royle,
op. cit., p. 102). On July 14th British seamen
were landed to protect the city, and on the 15th
many forts were occupied by them. Early in
August Arabi was removed from his post, and he
at once began to prepare to resist the English
soldiers who were known to be on their way to

Egypt; on August 15 Sir Garnet Wolseley arrived
in Egypt; on the 18th the British fleet arrived at
Port Ṣa‘îd; on the 20th the British seized the
Suez Canal, and the British Government was
declared by M. de Lesseps to have paid to him
£100,000 for loss of business! (Royle, op. cit.,
p. 152). On September 13 Sir Garnet Wolseley
was victorious at Tell el-Kebîr, at a cost of about
460 British officers and men; the Egyptians
lost about 2,000, and several hundreds were
wounded. On the 15th Cairo was occupied by
the British, and the 10,000 Egyptian soldiers there
submitted without fighting. On December 26th
Arabi left Egypt for exile in Ceylon.

1883.

A rebellion led by the Mahdi breaks out in the
Sûdân. The Mahdi was one Muḥammad Aḥmad,
a carpenter, who was born between 1840 and 1850;
his native village was situated near the Island of
Argo, in the province of Donịola, and though
poor, his parents declared that they belonged to
the Ashraf, or “nobility,” and claimed to be
descendants of Muḥammad the Prophet. His
father was a religious teacher, and had taught him
to read and write. He studied at Berber under
Muḥammad al-Khên, and later at Kharṭûm under
the famous Shêkh Muḥammad Sherîf, and when
he became a man he led a life of great asceticism
on the Island of Abba in the White Nile. His
piety and learning secured for him a great reputation
in the Sûdân, and the greater number of
the inhabitants sided with him in a serious quarrel
which he had with Muḥammad Sherîf. He
wandered about preaching against the Christians,
and he declared that the decay in the Muḥammadan
religion was due to the contact of Arabs

A.D.
1883

with Christians, that true faith was dead, and that
he was deputed by God to restore it. He then
attached a number of important people to himself,
and having retired to Abba Island, he declared
himself to be the “Mahdi,” or the being whose
advent had been foretold by Muḥammadan writers,
who would restore the religion of the Arabs to its
former purity. In July, 1881, Rauf Pâsha, the
Governor-General of the Sûdân, sent for him to
come to Kharṭûm, but the Mahdi refused, and six
weeks later he and his followers defeated the
Government troops which had been sent to bring
him, and slew half of them. In December he
defeated Rashîd Bey, the Governor of Fashôda,
and slew nearly all the 400 soldiers which he had
with him at Geddîn. In April, 1882, Giegler
Pâsha, the temporary Governor-General, next
attacked the Mahdi, and under his able generalship
considerable loss was inflicted on the rebels;
but on June 7 the Mahdi and his Dervishes
massacred the combined forces of ‘Abd-Allah and
Yussuf Pâsha, and in September he besieged
El-Obêd, which capitulated on January 17, 1883.
In the same month Colonel W. Hicks, a retired
Indian officer, was appointed head of the Army in
the Sûdân, and on February 7 he left Cairo for
Kharṭûm viâ Berber, which he reached on March 1;
in April he set out against the Dervishes, and on
the last day of the month he defeated about 4,000
of them and killed about 500. On September 9
he set out with reinforcements for Duêm, intending
to recapture El-Obêd, but early in November the
Mahdi attacked his force of about 10,000 men
with some thousands of soldiers from the old
Egyptian Army, near Lake Rahad, it is said, and

A.D. 1884	the gallant Englishman and his officers and men, who were suffering greatly from want of water, having been led into an ambush, were cut to pieces. Thus the Mahdi became master of the Sûdân.
A.D.
1884	In February Baker Pâsha set out with about 3,800 men to relieve Sinkat, but his motley troops were defeated at Tokar, and about 2,400 of them slain, and thousands of rifles and much ammunition fell into the hands of the Dervishes. In January of this year Charles George Gordon (born January 28, 1833, murdered at Kharṭûm on the night of January 26, 1885) was sent to Kharṭûm to arrange for the evacuation of the Sûdân; he left Cairo on January 26 and arrived there on February 18. On February 28, General Graham defeated the Dervishes at El-teb, and nearly 1,000 of them were slain. On March 13 he defeated Osman Diịna's * army at Tamaai and killed about 2,500 of his men; Osman's camp was burnt, and several hundred thousand of the cartridges which had been taken from Baker Pâsha were destroyed. On the 27th, Tamanib was occupied by Graham and then burnt. About the middle of April the Mahdi began to besiege Gordon in Kharṭûm, and preparations for a relief expedition were begun in England in May; this expedition was placed (August 26) under Sir Garnet Wolseley, who decided to attempt to reach Kharṭûm by ascending the Nile. This route made it necessary to travel 1,700 miles against the stream, and six cataracts, and other natural barriers, made the progress extremely slow; General Sir F. Stephenson, the highest authority on the subject,

A.D. 1884
1885

advised the route viâ Sawwaịîn (Suâkin) and
Berber, and by it troops could have entered Kharṭûm
some months before Gordon was murdered.
On the other hand it has been urged that, as the
town of Berber surrendered on May 26, the main
reason for an advance along the Suâkin-Berber road
was taken away (Sudan Campaign, Pt. I, p. 25).
The expedition consisted of 7,000 men, and all of
them had reached Wâdî Ḥalfa by the end of
November. On December 2, the troops at Donịola
set out for Korti, which was reached by Sir
Herbert Stewart on the 13th of the same month.
Here it was decided to send a part of the force to
Kharṭûm across the desert, viâ Matemmah, and a
part by way of the river. On December 30, Sir
Herbert Stewart set out with about 1,100 officers
and men, and on January 2 he seized the Gakdul
Wells, 95 miles from Korti; after one day he
returned with the greater part of his force to
Korti (January 5) to fetch further supplies, having
left 400 men at Gakdul to build forts and to guard
the wells. On the 8th, he again set out for
Gakdul, and on the 16th he reached a spot about
four miles from the wells of Abu Klea,* and
23 miles from Matemmah; next day the famous
battle of Abu Klea was fought, and 1,500 British
soldiers defeated 11,000 Dervishes. The Dervishes
succeeded in breaking the British square,
but every one of them who got in was killed,
and 1,100 of their dead were counted near it;
their number of wounded was admitted by them
to have been very large. On the 18th General

A.D.
1885

Stewart moved on towards Matemmah and, after
a march which lasted all day and all night, again
fought the Dervishes on the 19th, and killed or
wounded 800; in this fight, however, he received
the wound of which he died. On the 20th
Abu Kru, or Gubat, was occupied by the British:
on the 21st Sir Charles Wilson attempted to take
Matemmah, but the force at his command was
insufficient for the purpose. On the 22nd the
British soldiers began to build two forts at Abu
Kru; on the 23rd Sir C. Wilson began to make
the steamers ready to go to Kharṭûm; and on the
24th he set out with two steamers and twenty men.
Four days later he came to Tuti Island and found
that Kharṭûm was in the hands of the Mahdi,
whereupon he ordered his vessels to turn and run
down the river with all speed; when they were
out of the reach of the enemy's fire, Sir C. Wilson
stopped them and sent out messengers to learn
what had happened, and it was found that
Kharṭûm had fallen on the night of the 26th,
and that Gordon had been murdered a little
before sunrise on the 27th. His head was cut
off and taken to the Mahdi, but his body was left
in the garden for a whole day, and thousands of
Dervishes came and plunged their spears into it;
later the head was thrown into a well. On
February 13 the British troops, including those
which had marched with General Buller to Gubat,
retreated to Abu Klea, and a fortnight later they
set out for Korti, which they reached on March 1.
The portion of the British troops which attempted
to reach Khartûm by river left Korti on December
28, 1884, and reached Berti on February 1,
1885, and on the 9th was fought the battle of

Kirbekan, in which General Earle was shot dead
On the 17th the house, palm trees, and water-wheels
of Sulêmân Wad Gamr, who murdered
Colonel Stewart, were destroyed, and on the 24th,
orders having been received to withdraw, the river
column made ready to return to Korti, which was
reached on the 8th of March. When it was seen
that Lord Wolseley's expedition had failed to bring
Gordon from Kharṭûm, it was decided by the
British Government to break the power of Osman
Diịna, and with this object in view the Suâkin
Expedition was planned. On February 17, 1885,
the British Government made a contract with
Messrs. Lucas and Aird to construct a railway of
4 feet 8½ inches gauge from Suâkin to Berber. On
the 20th General Graham was placed in command
of the Suâkin Field Force, which consisted of
about 10,500 officers and men. On March 20
General Graham fought an action at Hashin, and
two days later a fierce fight took place at Tofrik,
between Suâkin and Tamaai. General McNeill
was attacked by about 3,000 Dervishes, of whom
1,000 were killed, but the British loss was, relatively,
considerable. In May the British Government
recalled Graham's expedition, and abandoned the
making of the railway to Berber, and thus Osman
Diịna was again able to boast that he had driven
the English out of the country (Royle, Sudan
Campaigns, p. 436). On June 22, the death of
the Mahdi occurred; he was succeeded by
‘Abd-Allah, better known as the “Khalîfa.” In
July the last of the British troops of Lord
Wolseley's expedition left Donịola; by the end of
September nearly the whole country as far north
as Wâdi Ḥalfa was in the hands of the Mahdi, and

A.D. 1885	it was seen that, unless checked, the Dervishes would invade Egypt. General Sir F. Stephenson and General Sir Francis Grenfell attacked them at Kosheh and Ginnis on December 30, and about A.D. 1,000 of the Mahdi's troops were killed and wounded. * More correctly Abu Tliḥ , i.e., a place abounding in acacia trees. * i.e., “Osman of the beard”; he is the son of a Turkish merchant and slave dealer who settled in the Eastern Sûdân early in the XIXth century.
A.D.
1886.	Towards the close of this year Osman Dikịna with-drew from Suâkin to Omdurmân, partly because the Arabs about Suâkin had defeated his troops and occupied Tamaai, and partly because he hoped for much benefit from the Mahdi's attack on Egypt.
1887.	In June, Osman Diịna returned to Suâkin with about 2,000 Baggara Dervishes, but failed to move the people of the country; in the following month he returned to Omdurmân, but hearing that the Egyptian garrison at Suâkin had been reduced, he returned with 5,000 men and determined to capture the city.
1888.	On January 17, Colonel (now Lord) Kitchener, at the head of some friendly Arabs, attacked and captured the Dervish camp, but eventually the Dervishes re-formed and turned the Egyptian victory into a defeat. On December 20, General Grenfell, with reinforcements, attacked Osman Diịna's troops and killed and wounded 500 of them.
1889.	In April Wad en-Negûmi had advanced as far north as Hafîr with about 5,000 men, and another 1,000 were at Sarras, only about 33 miles south of Wâdi Ḥalfa. On July 1, Colonel Wodehouse, with about 2,000 Egyptian soldiers, defeated the Dervishes, under Wad en-Negûmi, at Argîn, near Wâdi Ḥalfa, killing 900 and taking 500 prisoners. On the 5th, General Grenfell left Cairo for the south with reinforcements, and made arrangements to meet the attack of Wad en-Negûmi, who, undaunted by his defeat at Argîn, was marching north; and on August 1 this redoubtable warrior collected his force of 3,300 men and 4,000 followers on the hills to the south of Tushki, or Toski. On the 3rd General Grenfell disposed his British and Egyptian troops in such a way as to check the advance of Wad en-Negûmi, who, however, only wished to get away and not to fight. He was at length forced to fight, and he fought bravely, but General Grenfell's tactics were so thoroughly well planned and carried out, that the Dervish force was completely routed and destroyed. About 1,200 were killed and 4,000 were taken prisoners, and the Egyptian loss only amounted to 25 killed and 140 wounded. The effect on the country was marvellous, for, as Mr. Royle says (op. cit., p. 485), “the victory of Toski marked the turning point in the invasion, and was a shock to the cause of Mahdism which it took years to recover.” The Dervish reinforcements beat a hasty retreat, and the Mahdi suspended all further operations for the invasion of Egypt.

A.D.
1890.	Osman Diịna continued to make raids upon Suâkin from Tokar.
1891.	In January Colonel (now Sir C.) Holled-Smith set out to attack Osman Diịna, and on February 19 he routed the enemy at Tokar, killing 700 men.
1892-1895.	Osman Diịna continued to harass the Arabs round Suâkin, and made raids wherever he thought he had any chance of success. On January 7, 1892, the Khedive, Tawfîk Pâsha, died after a short illness at Ḥelwân, and he was succeeded by his eldest son, Abbâs II. Hilmy; the Imperial Firman from the Porte confirming his succession cost about £6,154, and was read on April 14.
1896.	In the early part of this year Osman Diịna's forces were attacked and defeated with great loss by

A.D.

Colonel Lloyd, Major Sydney, and Captain Fenwick.
On February 29 the Italians were defeated
with severe loss at Adowa, and the Italian garrison
at Kassala was in imminent danger from the
Dervishes. With a view of assisting Italy by
making it necessary for the Dervishes to turn
their attention elsewhere, the British Government
determined to advance to Akasheh and Donịola.
In the hands of General Kitchener, who had
succeeded General Grenfell as Sirdar of the
Egyptian Army in April, 1892, the conduct of
the new Sûdân Expedition was placed. On
March 21 he left Cairo for the south, and the
first serious skirmish between the Dervishes and
Egyptians took place on May 1. Early in June
the Sirdar divided his forces, and one column
marched upon Ferket by way of the river, and
another across the desert. On June 7 the two
columns joined hands, and a fierce fight ensued.
The Sirdar's arrangements were so skilfully made
and carried out, that the Dervishes were utterly
routed; they lost about 1,000 killed and wounded,
and 500 were made prisoners. Among the killed
were about forty of their chief men. The Egyptian
loss was 100 killed and wounded. On September
19 the Sirdar occupied Hafîr after a fight, and four
days later the Egyptian troops entered Donịola;
Debbeh, Korti, and Marawî were next occupied, and
the country as far as the foot of the Fourth Cataract
was once more in the hands of the Egyptians.

A.D.
1897.

Early in this year the decision to make the Wâdi
Ḥalfa and Abu-Ḥamed Railway was arrived at, for
the Sirdar regarded it as absolutely necessary; by
this route nearly 350 miles of difficult river transport
would be avoided. When the railway had
advanced considerably more than half way to Abu
Ḥamed, General Hunter marched from Marawî
to Abu Ḥamed and defeated the Dervishes, who
held it in force, and occupied it on August 7. Of
the Dervish garrison of 1,500 men, about 1,300
were killed and wounded. Soon afterwards the
Dervishes evacuated Berber, which was entered
by General Hunter on September 13. On
October 31 the railway reached Abu-Hamed.

A.D.

1898.

On April 8th, Good Friday, the Sirdar utterly
defeated the great Dervish force under Maḥmûd
at the Battle of the Atbara; the Dervish loss was
about 3,000 killed, and 2,000 were taken prisoners,
while the Sirdar's loss was under 600 killed and
wounded. The forces engaged on each side were
about 14,000. On September 2nd the capture of
Omdurmân and the defeat of the Khalîfa
‘Abdu-Allahi were accomplished by the Sirdar. The
Khalîfa's forces numbered at least 50,000, and
those of the Sirdar about 22,000. The Dervish
loss was at least 11,000 killed and 16,000
wounded, and over 4,000 were made prisoners;
the Sirdar's loss was rather more than 400 killed
and wounded. The Khalîfa escaped and fled south,
having first taken care to bury his treasure; the
body of the Mahdi was removed from its tomb,
and burnt, and the ashes were thrown into the
Nile; the head is said to be buried at Wâdi
Ḥalfa. The tomb was destroyed because, if left
untouched, it would always have formed a centre
for religious fanaticism and sedition. On Sunday,
September 4, the Sirdar held a memorial service
for General Gordon at Kharṭûm, when the British
and Egyptian flags were hoisted. On the 19th the
Sirdar hoisted the Egyptian flag at Fashôda, which

had been occupied by Major Marchand, the head
of a French expedition, who sought to claim as a
right a position on the Nile on behalf of France.

A.D.
1899.

* In January General Kitchener set out to catch the
Khalîfa, who had fled towards Kordofân, but his
expedition failed for want of water. In November
it was said that the Khalîfa was at Gebel Geddîr,
which lay to the north-west of Fashôda, on the
west bank of the Nile, and about 160 miles from
the river. The Sirdar pursued with a large force,
but the Khalîfa fled towards Khartûm. On
November 22 Colonel (now Sir) F. R. Wingate (now
Sirdar of the Egyptian army) pursued him to
Abba Island on the Nile, and learning that he was
encamped at Umm Dabrikât, attacked him on the
24th. After a fierce but short fight in the early
morning, Colonel Wingate defeated the Khalîfa,
killing over 1,000 of his men, and taking prisoners
3,000. The Khalîfa met his fate like a man, and
seeing that all was lost, seated himself upon a
sheepskin with his chief Emîrs, and with them fell
riddled with bullets. The Egyptian loss was 15
killed and wounded. The death of the Khalîfa
was the death-blow to Mahdism.

* On March 4 of this year, Mr. John M. Cook, the late head
of the firm of Thomas Cook and Son, died at Walton-on-Thames.
The services which he rendered to the Egyptian
Government were very considerable. In the Gordon Relief
Expedition his firm transported from Asyût to Wâdî Ḥalfa, a
distance of about 550 miles, Lord Wolseley's entire force,
which consisted of 11,000 British and 7,000 Egyptian troops,
800 whalers, and 130,000 tons of stores and war materials.
In 1885, 1886, and 1896 his firm again rendered invaluable
services to the Government, and one is tempted to regret,
with Mr. Royle (The Egyptian Campaigns, p. 554), that, in
view of the melancholy failure of the Gordon Relief
Expedition, his contract did not include the rescue of
Gordon and the Sûdân garrisons. He transported the
wounded to Cairo by water after the battle of Tell el-Kebîr,
and when the British Army in Egypt was decimated with
enteric fever, conveyed the convalescents by special steamers
up the Nile, and made no charge in either case except the
actual cost of running the steamers. He was greatly beloved
by the natives, and the Luxor Hospital, which he founded,
is one of the many evidences of the interest which he took
in their welfare. Thousands of natives were employed in
his service, and it would be difficult to estimate the benefits
which accrued indirectly to hundreds of families in all parts
of the country through his energy and foresight.

A.D.
1900.	In January Osman Diịna was in hiding near Tokar, and Muḥammad ‘Ali, the loyal Gamilab Shêkh, found that he had entered his country. Major Burges and Aḥmad Bey, left Suâkin on January 8 and 10 respectively, and a few days later they arrived at the Warriba range, which about 90 miles to the south-west of Suâkin; and there Osman was seen apparently waiting to partake of a meal from a recently killed sheep. At the sight of his pursuers he fled up a hill, but was soon caught, and was despatched from Suâkin in the S.S. “Behera,” and arrived at Suez on January 25, en route for Rosetta, where he now lies in prison. On September 25 Slatin Pâsha was appointed British Inspector of the Sûdân. On November 2 Major Hobbs opened a branch of the Bank of Egypt at Kharṭûm.
1902.	On February 4 Kaimakam Matthews reported that the Ṣudd would be cleared from Baḥral-Jabal by about March 1.

Dates assigned to the Egyptian Dynasties by
Egyptologists.

Dynasty.	Champollion-Figeac.	Lepsius (in 1858).	Brugsch (in 1877).	Mariette.
I.	B.C. 5,867	3,892	4,400	5,004
II.	5,615	3,639	4,133	4,751
III.	5,318	3,338	3,966	4,449
IV.	5,121	3,124	3,733	4,235
V.	4,673	2,840	3,566	3,951
VI.	4,425	2,744	3,300	3,703
VII.	4,222	2,592	3,100	3,500
VIII.	4,147	2,522	—	3,500
IX.	4,047	2,674	—	3,358
X.	3,947	2,565	—	3,249
XI.	3,762	2,423	—	3,064
XII.	3,703	2,380	2,466	2,851
XIII.	3,417	2,136	2,235	—
XIV.	3,004	2,167	—	2,398
XV.	2,520	2,101	—	2,214
XVI.	2,270	1,842	—	—
XVII.	2,082	1,684	—	—
XVIII.	1,822	1,591	1,700	1,703
XIX.	1,473	1,443	1,400	1,462
XX.	1,279	1,269	1,200	1,288
XXI.	1,101	1,091	1,100	1,110
XXII.	971	961	966	980
XXIII.	851	787	766	810
XXIV.	762	729	733	721
XXV.	718	716	700	715
XXVI.	674	685	666	665
XXVII.	524	525	527	527
XXVIII.	404	525	—	406
XXIX.	398	399	399	399
XXX.	377	378	378	378
XXXI.	339	340	340	340

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PROGRESS IN EGYPT UNDER BRITISH
RULE.

The progress made in Egypt since the country passed
under the rule of the British is astonishing, even to those
who knew its wonderfully recuperative powers. Its material
prosperity is so great and advances with such rapid strides
that it is difficult to understand its miserable and bankrupt
condition at the time of Arabi Pâsha's rebellion. A journey
through the country reveals the fact that for one beast seen
in the fields at that time, ten may now be counted, for the
peasant farmer need not now fear the sudden descent of
arbitrary tax-gatherers who would carry off the occupants
of his fields and byres. In the towns and villages the
houses are better built and kept in better repair, for their
owners need not fear that the laying on of a coat of paint
or whitewash will be taken as evidence that they possess
superfluous cash, and so bring down upon themselves a
visit from the local revenue officer and increased taxation.
The water supply is regulated with justice, and the peasant
obtains his due as surely and as regularly as the Pâsha, and
it is now impossible for any large landowner to irrigate his
garden at the expense of the parched plots of his poor
neighbours. One of the greatest boons which Britain has
conferred upon the Egyptian is the abolition of the Corvée.
The work to be done by the corvée was of two kinds, viz.,
(1) to make and upkeep earthworks, i.e., to cut and clean
canals, etc., (2) to protect the river banks during the inundation.
The liability of the Egyptian male to be called
upon to do work of the former class was abolished in 1889,
and although it costs Egypt £420,000 per annum to do
without forced labour, it is admitted on all hands that the
expenditure is justified. Under the old system the most
shameful abuses crept in, and hundreds of the official

classes had their houses built, canals cut and cleaned, and
estates watered entirely by the corvée. The iniquity of the
system was that it pressed hardest upon the poorest classes.
Mr. Willcocks, of the Egyptian Irrigation Department, first
showed that by adopting improved methods the necessity
for much of the labour was done away with, and its abolition
is one of Viscount Cromer's most brilliant achievements.
It must not be forgotten that men have to be
called out each year to protect the river banks in time of
flood, and that all the inhabitants may be called out in any
sudden emergency, the following figures give the numbers
for the last few years of those called out:—

1891	44,962
1892	84,391
1893	32,752
1894	49,448
1895	36,982
1896	25,794
1897	11,069
1898	10,079
1899	7,893
1900	14,180
1900	8,763* * Parliamentary Papers, Egypt No. 1, 1900, p. 19; Egypt No. 1, 1902, p 24.

The official returns show the increase in the revenue
during the last ten years:—

	£E
1890	10,237,000
1891	10,539,000
1892	10,297,000
1893	10,242,000
1894	10,161,000
1895	10,431,000
1896	10,694,000
1897	11,093,000
1898	11,132,000
1899	11,200,000
1900	11,663,000
1901	12,160,000

This has been the case notwithstanding that a considerable
diminution in taxation has been effected; the taxation
per head of the population was in 1881 £1 2s. 2d., and
that of the debt £14 8s. 9d.; in 1897 the corresponding
figures were 17s. 9d. and £10 0s. 2d. (Mr. Dawkins, in
Milner, England in Egypt, p. 384). Between 1890 and
1901 taxes to the extent of £E1,408,000 per annum have
been remitted. The following, taken from the Parliamentary
Papers (1896, No. 1, p. 3, etc.), will show the
amounts of surplus and deficit between 1883 and 1901—

	Surplus.	Deficit.
	£E.	£E.
1883	—	920,000
1884	—	460,000
1885	—	697,000
1886	—	684,000
1887	111,000	—
1888	—	1,000
1889	160,000	—
1890	591,000	—
1891	951,000	—
1892	769,000	—
1893	720,000	—
1894	785,000	—
1895	1,088,000	—
1896	690,000	—
1897	630,000	—
1898	1,376,000	—
1899	1,848,000	—
1900	559,000	—
1901	764,000	—

The financial situation on December 30, 1901, may be
thus summarised:—

The National Debt £E.103,710,000, but £E.7,273,000
of this sum was held by the Commissioners of the Public
Debt. There is no floating debt. The General Reserve
Fund amounted to £E.3,795,000; the Special Reserve
Fund to £E.1,287,000; and the accumulated Conversion
Economies amounted to £E.4,485,000. The Economies
Fund “is invested in Egyptian bonds, and Egypt is
therefore becoming pro tanto the holder of her own
debt. But to buy up your debts at a premium of
8 per cent., instead of paying them off at par, a premium
continually forced up by further obligatory purchases on
your own part, is extravagant finance. It is an extravagance
forced on Egypt by international conventions, for which, in
the present case, the word ‘France' might be used”

(Dawkins, op. cit., p. 302). The sum of £E.2,500,000
which was spent on the Sûdân Expedition in 1896-98 may
be regarded as a good investment, for as assets Egypt has
760 miles of railway, with an adequate number of engines,
rolling-stock, etc.; 2,000 miles of telegraph line, six new
gun-boats, barges, etc., and the whole Sûdân (Kitchener's
speech in London, Nov. 4, 1898). Railways in 1899
brought in £E.1,222,000. The cost of the repairs to the
Embâbeh Bridge has been very large. The bridge was
built by a French firm for £E.80,000, but £E.43,000(!)
more has had to be spent upon it before it was safe for
traffic. Telegraphs brought in £E.64,000; salt , under
the new regulations, brought in £E.223,000; customs
£E.2,563,193, being £145,218 in excess of the revenue
in 1900. The revenue from this last source has, therefore,
increased greatly for the amount collected in 1889 only
amounted to £E.1,027,000. The value of the Imports
in 1901 was £E.15,245,000, which is £E.1,133,000 more
than the figure for 1900; and the value of the Exports
was £E.15,730,000, a decrease of £E.1,036,000 over
1900. The Post Office yields a net revenue to the
Government of £E.28,000. The total number of persons
confined in prisons in 1901 was 9,357; 11 cases of
prosecution for slave dealing were carried on in 1900;
23,447 cases were treated in the Government hospitals;
357,000 successful vaccinations were made in 1900;
80,011 legal cases were brought before Native Tribunals;
the system of Village Justice evolved by Lord Cromer and
his legal advisers has proved to be a great success; the
powers of the Mixed Tribunals have been modified, and
considerable alterations have been made in the application
of Muḥammadan Law. In Education great strides have
been made. In 1887 only 1,919 pupils were under the
direct management of the Department of Public Instruction;
in 1898 the number had grown to 19,684, and in 1899 to

23,390. The school fees in 1887 were £E.9,000, and in
1899 £E.36,000. It is a remarkable fact that the percentage
of Muḥ.ammadan pupils in schools and colleges
under the Department is less than the percentage of the
Muḥammadans in the total population, while the percentage
of Coptic pupils in the same schools is almost treble the
percentage of Copts throughout Egypt. Thus Muḥammadans
form 93 per cent. of the total population, and the
number of their children in the schools forms 78 per cent.
of the pupils; the Copts form 6 per cent. of the total
population, but the number of their children in the schools
forms 17 per cent. of the pupils. At the beginning of the
British occupation of Egypt the principal European language
taught in the Government schools was French;
English was either altogether neglected or was very badly
taught. The schools of the American Missionaries were
the only places where English was taught, and the splendid
services rendered by these institutions in this respect must
not be forgotten. Until the last few years nearly every
railway, postal, or telegraph official in Egypt who possessed
any competent knowledge of the English language owed
his instruction to the American missionaries. The following
figures illustrate the growth of the study of English in
Government schools:—

	English.	French.
1889	1,063	2,994
1890	1,747	3,199
1891	2,032	2,852
1892	2,237	2,864
1893	2,434	2,585
1894	2,669	3,748
1895	2,665	3,417
1896	2,800	3,363
1897	3,058	3,150
1898	3,859	1,881
1899	4,401	1,210

Thus in 1899 about 78 per cent. of the pupils were
studying English and 22 per cent. French; in 1889 the

figures were 26 per cent. and 74 per cent. respectively.
In 1884 about 360,000 tons of coal were imported at
Alexandria, and 726,000 at Port Ṣa'îd; in 1901 these
numbers had risen to 867,150 and 228,865 tons respectively.
In January, 1882, “Egyptian Unifieds” were
quoted at 61⅛, and in January, 1901, at 106½. Worthy
of mention too is the success of the societies which have
been established in Cairo, Alexandria, and Port Ṣa'îd
for the prevention of cruelty to animals. In Cairo 1,178
animals were treated in the infirmary in 1900, in Alexandria
2,384, and in Port Sa‘îd 159; it is good to learn
that Lord Cromer thinks the action of these societies is
causing a steady improvement in the condition of the
animals employed in the towns where the societies exist.
The productive and recuperative powers of Egypt have
been proverbial from time out of mind, but the most
sanguine reformer of Egypt in 1883 could never have
expected that the last year of the century would have
witnessed such a state of prosperity in the country as
now exists. This is due entirely to the fidelity with
which the civil and military officials have performed their
duties, and to the carrying out of the consistent and
wise policy which was inaugurated by Viscount Cromer,
whose strong hand has ceaselessly guided and supported
every work which tended to the welfare and prosperity
of Egypt.

Ceiling ornament at Philae.

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The Religion and Gods of Egypt	143
The Modern Egyptians	191
Sketch of Coptic History	200
The Arabs, Muḥammad, etc	211
Alexandria	247
The Pharos	248
Pompey's Pillar	251
Cleopatra's Needles	251
Catacombs	252
Damanhûr	253
Kafr ez-Zaiyât	254
Ṭanṭa	254
Benha el-‘Asal	254
Rosetta Stone	255
Suez and the Suez Canal	256
Shibîn el-Ḳanâṭir	261
Zaḳâzîḳ and Tell-Basṭa	262-264
Abu Ḥammâd	264
Tell el-Kebîr	264
Maḥsamah	264
Isma‘îlîya	265
Nefîsheh	265
Tanis	265-267
Cairo	268
Coptic Churches	269
Mosques	273
Tombs of the Khalifs	278
Tombs of the Mamelukes	278
The Citadel	278
Joseph's Well	279
The Library	279
Ezbekîyeh Garden	279
The Nilometer at Rôḍa	280
Heliopolis	281
The Pyramids of Gîzeh	283

The Great Pyramid	285
The Second Pyramid	289
The Third Pyramid	291
The Sphinx	294
The Temple of the Sphinx	295
The Tomb of Numbers	295
Campbell's Tomb	296
The Pyramids of Abu-Roâsh	296
The Pyramids of Abuṣir	296
Bedrashên, Memphis, and Saḳḳârah	298
The Statue of Rameses II.	301
The Step Pyramid	302
Pyramid of Unạs	303
Pyramid of Tetạ	303
Pyramid of Pepi I.	304
The Serapeum	305
The Tomb of Thi	307
Mariette's House	310
The Pyramids of Dahshûr	311
The Quarries of Ma‘ṣara and Ṭurra	319
The Pyramid of Mêdûm	319
Upper Egypt Railway	321
Wasṭa and the Fayyûm	325
Aṭfîḥ	329
Beni Suwêf	329
Maghâghah	330
Cynopolis	331
Convent of the Pulley	332
Minyeh	333
Beni Hasân	334
Rôḍa	343
Melâwî	345
Haggi Ḳandîl	345
Gebel Abu Faḍah	348
Manfalûṭ	348

Asyûṭ	349
Abu Tîg	350
Ṭahṭah	351
Sûhâg	351
The White and Red Monasteries	351-353
Akhmîm, Menshiah, Girgeh	353
Abydos	355
Temple of Seti I.	357
Temple of Rameses II.	360
Farshûṭ	363
Nag' Ḥamâdî	363
Ḳaṣr eṣ-Ṣayyâd	363
Ḳeneh	363
The Temple of Denderah	364
Ḳufṭ	367
Ḳûs	368
Naḳadah	368
Luxor and Thebes	370
The Temple of Luxor	374
The Temple at Karnak	381
The Temple at Ḳûrnah	392
The Ramesseum	392
The Colossi of Amenophis III.	394
Medînet Habû	395
The Temple of Rameses III.	396
Dêr el-Baḥari	403
Dêr el-Medînet	411
The Discovery of Royal Mummies at Dêr el-Baḥari	412
The Tombs of the Kings—
Tomb of Seti I.	418
Tomb of Rameses III.	420
Tomb of Rameses IV	420
Tomb of Rameses VI.	420
Tomb of Rameses IX.	420
Tomb of Rameses I.	421

Tomb of Thothmes III.	421
Tomb of Amenophis II.	421
Tomb of Rechmạ-Rā	422
Tomb of Nekht	422
Erment	432
Gebelên	432
Esneh	433
El-Kâb	435
Edfû	438
Hagar Silsileh	439
Kom Ombo	439
Aswân	444
Elephantine	445
The First Cataract	453
Philae	455
The Nile between the First and Second Cataracts	466
Dabôd	467
Ḳartassi	467
Wâdi Tâfah	468
Kalâbshah	468
Bêt el-Walî	468
Dendûr	469
Gerf-Hussên	469
Dakkeh	470
Kubân	471
Kûrta	472
Miḥarrakah	472
Wâdi Sebûa	472
Korosko	473
Amada	473
Dêrr	474
Abû-Simbel	474
Map of the Country south of Wâdî Ḥalfah	480
Wâdî Ḥalfah	480
Wâdî Ḥalfah to Kharṭûm	481-518

Sûdân Military Railway	485
Sarras, Semneh, Kummeh	489
Mughrat Wells, Akasheh, Ferket, Kosheh, Sai,
Amârah	491
Sedênga, Suarda, Gebel Dûsh, Soleb, Sesebi, Dalgo, Tombos	492
Al-Ḥafîr, New Donḳola or Ḳaṣr Donḳola	493
Old Donḳola	494
Abu Gûs, Al-Dabbah, Ḳûrṭa	495
Kurru, Zuma, Tanḳassi	496
Marawî and Gebel Barkal	497
Nuri	502
Fourth Cataract	503
Abu Ḥamed	504
Berber	505
Atbara	506
Meroë	507
Shendi	513
Nâga	514
Ben Nâga	514
Muṣawwarât aṣ-Ṣufra	515
Omdurmân	516
Kharṭûm and Tuti Island	517
List of Hieroglyphic names of Kings	519
Gîzeh Museum	555
Rôda Gauge	628
Index	629

	PAGE
Map of Egypt
Introduction	v
Preface to the Seventh Edition	vii-x
Excavations in 1901-02	xvii-xxvi
Egyptian History and its sources	1
Historical Summary—
Ancient Empire	10
Middle Empire	13
New Empire	16
Persians	19
Macedonians	19
Ptolemies	19
Romans	21
The Byzantines	24
Muḥammadans	26
Dates assigned to the Egyptian Dynasties by Egyptologists	50
Progress in Egypt under British Rule	51
The Country of Egypt	57
The Nomes of Egypt	61
The Ancient Egyptians	64
The Nile	73
The Oases	94
Ancient Egyptian Buildings, Sculpture, Painting, etc.	98
Egyptian Writing	121
A list of some Hieroglyphic Signs	133
Arabic Alphabet	139
Coptic Alphabet	140
Egyptian Months	141

Nome.	Capital.	Divinity.
1. Ta-Kens.	Ābu (Elephantine), in later times Nubt (Ombos).	Khnemu.
2. Tes-Ḥeru.	Ṭeb (Apollinopolis magna, Arab. Uṭfu or Edfû).	Ḥeru - Beḥu tet.
3. Ten.	Nekheb (Eileithyia), in later times Sene (Latopolis), Esneh.	Nekheb.
4. Uast.	Uast (Thebes), in later times Hermonthis.	Ạmen-Rā.
5. Ḥerui.	Kebti (Coptos).	Ạmsu.
6. Āa-ti.	Taenterer (Denderah).	Hathor (Ḥet Ḥert).
7. Sekhem.	Ḥa (Diospolis parva).	Hathor.
8. Ạbṭ.	Ạbṭu (Abydos), in earlier times Teni (This).	Anḥur.
9. Ạmsu.	Ạpu (Panopolis).	Ạmsu.
10. Uat'et.	Ṭebu (Aphroditopolis).	Hathor.
11. Set.	Shasḥetep (Hypsele).	Khnemu.
12. Ṭuf.	Nen-ent-bak (Antaeopolis).	Horus.
13. Atefkhent.	Saiut (Lycopolis, Arab Sîûṭ).	Ạp-uat.
14. Atef-peḥ.	Kesi (Cusae).	Hathor.
15. Un.	Khemennu (Hermopolis).	Thoth.
16. Meḥ-maḥet.	Ḥebennu (Hipponon).	Horus.
17. ………	Kasa (Cynonpolis).	Anubis.
18. Sapet.	Ḥa-suten (Alabastronpolis).	Anubis.
19. Uab.	Pa-mat'et (Oxyrhynchos).	Set.
20. Am-khent.	Khenensu (Heracleopolis magna).	Ḥeru-shefi.

Title: The Nile : notes for travellers in Egypt [Electronic Edition]

Title: THE NILE: Notes for Travellers in Egypt

The Nile : notes for travellers in Egypt [Electronic Edition]

Contents

THE NILE. Notes for Travellers in Egypt.

THE NILE

Notes for Travellers in Egypt.

WITH TWO MAPS, PLANS OF TEMPLES, AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.

INTRODUCTION.

EGYPTOLOGICAL WORKS

PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION.

CONTENTS.

EXCAVATIONS IN 1901-02.

THE RECENTLY DISCOVERED CATA-COMB AT ALEXANDRIA.

A Circular staircase (entrance). B Corridor with semicircular recesses. C Rotunda. D Circular gallery. F Staircase to second stage. G Entrance to third stage. H Ante-chamber. I Funeral chamber. J Sarcophagus chamber. K Funeral chambers with cavities for dead bodies.

THE PRONAOS AND ENTRANCE TO THE FUNERAL CHAMBER.

THE SÛDÂN IN 1901.

NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT.EGYPTIAN HISTORY.

HISTORICAL SUMMARY.

ANCIENT EMPIRE.

Dynasty I, from This.

Dynasty II, from This.

Dynasty III, from Memphis.

Dynasty IV, from Memphis.

Dynasty V, from Elephantine.

Dynasty VI, from Memphis.

Dynasty XI, from Diospolis, or Thebes.

MIDDLE EMPIRE.

Dynasty XII, from Diospolis, or Thebes.

Dynasty XVIII, from Thebes.

Dynasty XIX, from Thebes.

NEW EMPIRE.

Dynasty XX, from Thebes.

Dynasty XXI, from Tanis and Thebes.

Dynasty XXII, Libyans who ruled the country from Bubastis (Tell-Basṭa).

Dynasty XXIII, from Tanis.

Dynasty XXIV, from Saïs (Sâ el-Ḥagar).

Dynasty XXV, from Ethiopia.

Dynasty XXVI, from Saïs.

Dynasty XXVII, from Persia.

Dynasty XXVIII, from Saïs.

Dynasty XXIX, from Mendes.

Dynasty XXX, from Sebennytus.

PERSIANS.

MACEDONIANS.

PTOLEMIES.*

ROMANS.

THE BYZANTINES.

MUHMMADANS.

Dates assigned to the Egyptian Dynasties by Egyptologists.

PROGRESS IN EGYPT UNDER BRITISH RULE.

Ceiling ornament at Philae.

THE COUNTRY OF EGYPT.

THE NILE.
Notes for Travellers in Egypt.

WITH TWO MAPS, PLANS OF TEMPLES, AND
NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.

PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH
EDITION.

THE RECENTLY DISCOVERED CATA-COMB
AT ALEXANDRIA.

NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS IN EGYPT.
EGYPTIAN HISTORY.

Dynasty XXII, Libyans who ruled the country from
Bubastis (Tell-Basṭa).

Dates assigned to the Egyptian Dynasties by
Egyptologists.

PROGRESS IN EGYPT UNDER BRITISH
RULE.