TO-DAY ON THE NILE
CHAPTER I
CAIRO AND THE
PYRAMIDS
EGYPT has now become the great
winter resort of
the world. Nature has given her the finest
winter
climate, and her own people centuries ago built
the great temples and tombs which to-day divert the
sightseer
and delight and instruct the educated traveler.
In
the first centuries of our era they were older than our
most
ancient cathedrals now are, and travelers from
Greece
and Rome came in large numbers to see and admire
them.
In the Middle Ages and even down to the time of
Napoleon
travel in Egypt was neither comfortable nor
fashionable.
In fact it might sometimes be called unsafe.
But
with the coming of the French army in 1798 a new
era
began for the tourist and scholar. A band of savants
accompanied
the army, and we are indebted to them for
the
interest they aroused and for a great deal of
information
which would otherwise have perished.
The Nile tour begins and ends at
Cairo. And this is
well, for near
Cairo are the pyramids, perhaps the most
impressive remains of ancient Egypt, and the museum
which contains the portable objects from the entire
country,
from the earliest times to the Arab conquest.
True,
much has been carried away to adorn the museums
of
foreign
countries, but that at
Cairo has the most
valuable
treasures and, in fact, all the results of recent
exploration.
It has, therefore, a complete collection and
one
worthy of repeated visits and study by all who would
attempt to comprehend ancient Egypt.
Cairo itself is notoriously a
modern city, only about a
thousand years old, the successor of
Fostat, which was in
turn the successor of Roman Babylon and
practically also
of ancient
Memphis and
Heliopolis.
Cairo, however, has
had a
glorious life and history all its own. It was and is
the
capital and center of Muslim Egypt and even, in some
senses,
of the Muslim world. The splendid scenes of luxury
and
debauchery of the Arabian Nights were for the
most part laid
here, and we cannot doubt that they represent
fairly the
actual life of the medieval city. This
life has entirely
passed away, and
Cairo is enjoying a
new
and glorious existence as the fashionable winter
resort of
the world.
Many writers and travelers maintain that the
Cairo of
the Middle Ages still exists
unchanged. But it takes a
lot of imagination to rediscover it.
It may be true
that the character of the Cairene merchant is
similar to
that of his remote ancestor and that a scene from
the
immortal Nights could be reënacted to-day. The
public
buildings of that time, the mosques and fountains,
give us
an idea of the city in its glory, but no one would
consider
it more than an idea. It cannot be denied that
Cairo has
changed
and is changing. The “unchanging East” is a
trite and
well-sounding phrase, but not strictly true. The
“slowly
changing East” would be more correct.
The pyramids are the oldest and most interesting things
in Egypt and therefore I recommend an early visit. They
introduce us to the country. The electric car sounds very
modern and
prosaic, but is none the less the best way of
making the trip.
It takes one along the famous and
beautiful carriage road
quickly, easily, and almost dustlessly.
You arrive in mental
and physical condition to
appreciate and admire.
The Mena House has become an important institution.
It gives an opportunity to the transient visitor to rest and
refresh himself before and after his visit to the plateau. It
furnishes comfortable quarters to those who can, and wish
to,
stay out here on the edge of the desert. Then it curbs
and
employs the semi-wild, semi-childish natives. None of
them
will do anything which would entail expulsion from
the hotel
and neighborhood.
The walk from the hotel to the pyramid plateau is longer
than it appears. A host of boys with donkeys and camels
urge the traveler to ride. Others offer their services as
dragomans. All possess a glib knowledge of broken English.
It is our first chance to deal with the importunate
and spoiled Arab. One should decide quickly whether he
wishes to walk or ride, and act accordingly. Good-humored
firmness is the secret here.
Formerly the traveler was mobbed until he selected one
or two rascals to whom he submitted himself. Now the
Government keeps a police officer at the
Great Pyramid and he endeavors to keep
order. There is a regular tariff,
—ten piasters to ascend the
pyramid, ten piasters to go
inside, and five piasters for the
granite temple at the
Sphinx. Twenty piasters buys a ticket
covering everything.
But none of these payments include the
inevitable
bakshish; so the efforts of the crowd are
directed thereto.
Of course your assistants expect, demand,
and implore
a bakshish, the larger the better or rather the
more
hope of increasing it by noise and clamor. The
bystanders
beg for
bakshish on general principles. The boy whose
camel or donkey
has brought you up is amazed and indignant
because he has only
received twice the proper
payment or about ten times the real
worth of the service
rendered. The only solution for these
matters is to keep
and exhibit good-nature and firmness.
Every visitor should, if possible, ascend the
Great Pyramid.
To those of average
build, age, and strength it presents
no difficulty. Don't
hurry, and let your guides do the
work. This kind of climbing
calls upon certain little-used
muscles in the lower limbs
which speedily become over-worked
and consequently are sore
for days afterward.
But let the two Arabs do the work, pulling
you up by the
arms. Tell them to stop howling for bakshish and
that
you will properly reward them when safely back.
The
bakshish is supposed to be included in the ticket. But
a
worthy custom, carefully perpetuated, requires that
each
attendant receive some personal recognition. A
piaster
ought to be sufficient. But the offer of so small
a sum will
cause much unnecessary talk and clamor. And they
have
been so spoiled by travelers that really two piasters
is
customary and, I think, ample. We must remember that
five piasters is a fair day's wages for an able-bodied
laborer.
Arrived at the top it again becomes necessary to quiet
the attendants. Three or four travelers, each with two
Arabs and the usual unnecessary and undesired followers,
make quite a company. All talk at once and all want
money. The venders of “antikas” should be summarily
disposed of. Their bits of mummy cloth are probably
genuine and worthless, other articles false and likewise
worthless. All such things can be obtained in profusion
up the Nile. An Arab will offer, at a descending scale of
prices, to go
to the top of the
second pyramid and back
in
ten minutes. He asserts that a certain American,
Mark
Twain, inaugurated this feat. I have seen it done
several
times, but never within the ten minutes. Still,
none of us
could do it in twelve minutes, or, indeed, in an
hour.
If it is worth while to make the ascent, it is advisable to
stay a reasonable time on the top. For you have come
many miles, and the last few hundred feet at considerable
exertion, to reach this spot. It is almost unnecessary to
say
that upon arrival one is out of breath and
overheated,
therefore glad of an extra wrap. Having almost
counted
every layer of stone, we begin to appreciate the
size of this
wonderful structure. According to Professor
Petrie there
are about 2,300,000 blocks of stone each
containing 40
cubic feet. The quarries were on the opposite
bank of the
Nile, and the entire mass had to be transported
across the
river and then across the plain. It meant the
possession
and use of an enormous number of human
laborers, that
is, slaves. In those days the entire people,
theoretically
and practically, belonged to the king to use
as he saw fit.
Captives taken in war, the noncombatants of a
defeated
enemy, were looked upon and cheerfully regarded
themselves
as the absolute property of the victors. They
considered
it a merciful favor to be allowed to live as
slaves
and to toil for the rest of their lives. It seemed
less terrible
to the people and to the individual to be worked
to
death individually than to be killed en masse. The slave
was regarded as
unfortunate, but not as oppressed or
wronged. It is only by a
little thought on this subject that
we can begin to understand
the ways and means of building
the pyramids and other great
works of antiquity.
According to Herodotus one hundred thousand men
were employed for the three months of the inundation.
At this time
they would not be needed at their ordinary
work. This
continued for twenty years. Professor Petrie
has calculated
that it would be entirely possible to build
the pyramid with
this force. It shows a wonderful organization
to be able to
employ such a number of men at
one time on one building. Each
gang and even each individual
had his own work and did it.
There is a story that one of the medieval rulers of Egypt
thought that an evil spirit dwelt in the third pyramid and
forthwith proceeded to tear it down. He put a large force
of
men to work. It is always easier to destroy than to
build up,
but at the end of three months he wearied of the
task and
gave it up. To-day the ruin he wrought is
unnoticeable
and the pyramid seems merely to have suffered
from the
ordinary wear of time. This tale has always
particularly
impressed me.
The
second pyramid appears
larger than the one we are
on. It is higher, but this is
because it is built on higher
ground. Its actual height,
however, is only four feet less,
for it has lost but seven
feet of its original height, while ours
has lost thirty-one
feet. It is seldom ascended by travelers,
as the original
coating is intact on the upper part. It
chanced that a year
ago I had said to one of my Arab
friends that I would like to
climb it. He did not forget
the remark and reminded me of it.
He said that he himself
never ascended it, but that he would
send for his
brother Hamza. The difficulty, of course, lies in
keeping a
cool head on the last part of the journey. Hamza
came,
and without letting any one else know of our
intention we
started. When we came to the smooth place he
insisted
on my taking off shoes and stockings. I did so
and soon
saw that it would have been impossible to go up shod.
A
slip would have been certain and fatal. The platform
on
the top is
very much smaller than on the
Great
Pyramid and only a few stones, perhaps two layers,
have fallen
down. I noticed one huge stone on the very top, as
large
as any in the pyramids. It was broken in two, but
evidently
this had happened long after it was first
placed.
The descent was much more difficult than the ascent,
for the rock is perfectly smooth, with minute places for
the hands and toes to cling to. A young Arab had followed
us
up. When I was ready to descend, both Arabs
said a short
prayer to Allah. Then I lay on my back,
Hamza lowered me by
the hands, and the boy went ahead
to place my feet in the
holes. It required only coolness
and patience, and in due time
we reached the end of the
smooth coating.
The ascent of the third pyramid is very easy and only
worth doing for the sake of completing the series.
Let us return to the
Great
Pyramid and notice and enjoy
the wonderful view. North
and south are groups of pyramids
reminding us that we are in
the midst of the greatest
burial-place in the world. A few
miles to the north are the
pyramids of
Abu Roash, dating from the fourth dynasty.
They are tumbling into ruin. A brick pyramid, still
farther
to the north, was fifty-five feet high when
visited by
Lepsius in 1842, and has since entirely crumbled
away.
Toward the south we see the pyramids of
Abusir, then the
hoary
Step Pyramid of
Saqqara, and in the distance the
pyramids of
Dahshur. We know that beyond
are the
pyramids of Lisht and of Medum. This makes a
cemetery
sixty miles in length. Looking toward the east we
see
the fertile valley with here and there native
villages, then
the river with the city, crowned by the citadel
mosque. In
the background we have the
Mokattam hills. On the
other side we
have the vast desert stretching for miles to
the westward.
Nowhere can we find a more remarkable
scene. In front, life
and activity, the city and the fields,
the villages inhabited
by men and animals (literally); at
our feet, death, ancient
death, and then the vast and silent
desert.
Naturally the descent is easier than the ascent. But
caution is needed, and it is best not to hurry. The jumps
are big and there are
lots of them. But
at last we are back
on the sand.
The visit to the interior comes next. I consider it comparatively
uninteresting and think it does not repay one
for the toil, the dust and the dirt. That is my opinion
now
that I have been inside. Before I went in I of course
would
not listen to such advice and insisted on getting the
experience for myself. The Arabs are only too willing to
go,
for payment and in hope of bakshish. All the party
are
supplied with candles, which bestow grease liberally
on their
owners and even more liberally on the owner's
friends. A small
piece of cardboard or paper with a hole
in it will prevent
most of this and saves the labor of
getting the grease out of
your clothes afterward. Still,
the clothes will not be worth
much on the return to the
outer air.
We ascend a few courses on the north side and then
plunge into a small hole. The passage is a trifle less than
four feet high and descends at an angle of 26°. It is over
a
hundred yards long and goes to the subterranean chamber.
We
follow it for twenty yards and then come to the
ascending
gallery. At first this is blocked by huge stones,
placed there
to seal the entrance. There is some difficulty
here, but the
Arabs know how to surmount it. Thence the
way is rather steep
and slippery to the Great Hall. This
is 28 feet high and 155
feet long. We see evidences of the
passage of
the sarcophagus. It must have been an awful
task, requiring
both labor and skill, to get it to its resting-place
in the
King's Chamber. The masonry work in the
Great Hall is
deserving of attention. Abd-el-Latif, the
great authority on
medieval Egypt, says truly that neither
a needle nor a hair
can be inserted into the joints of the
stones.
At last we come to the King's Chamber, the goal of our
trip. It is a plain bare room with the walls ornamented
by the names of more or less illustrious visitors. The
odor
of bats, alive and dead, is prominent. The empty
sarcophagus
is not very interesting. Our guides hold
candles to
the air-shafts to show that air comes in from the
outside.
They obligingly light very small pieces of
magnesium
wire of almost infinitesimal value. For this an
extra
bakshish of two piasters is unwillingly accepted.
The unwillingness
is not because they do not wish any
reward,
but because they would prefer a larger one.
Another chamber, called the Queen's Chamber, may be
reached from the Great Hall. It is smaller and has a curious
pointed roof. There are several other rooms and passages
which
have been thoroughly explored by scholars,
but which are not
usually visited by travelers and which
have little or no
interest beyond the fact of their existence.
The second and third pyramids contain tomb-chambers
and are easier of access than the
Great
Pyramid. The
second pyramid was opened by Belzoni in
1818. He found
a plain tomb-chamber and a sarcophagus without
inscription
or contents.
The interior of the third pyramid is the easiest of access
and most interesting. It is, however, seldom visited. In
the tomb-chamber was found the sarcophagus of Menkaura,
the builder of the pyramid. It was destined for the
British
Museum, but the vessel on which it was placed was
unfortunately lost off the coast of Spain. The inner wooden
coffin and the mummy of the king arrived safely in England
and
can be seen in the Egyptian Section of the British
Museum.
In describing the pyramids I find I have neglected to
give the names and dates of the builders. These three
pyramids of Gizeh were all built by kings
of the fourth
dynasty, about 3700
B.C. The
Great
Pyramid was built
by Khufu, better known perhaps as
Cheops. His successor,
Khafra or Kephren, built the second. He
was an
important monarch and we have considerable material
from his reign. Menkaura or Mycerinus built the third.
He bears the reputation of a great and just ruler.
Most travelers do not spend any time or even go near
the second and third pyramids, but go directly from the
Great Pyramid to the
Sphinx. The boys with donkeys and
camels are vociferous and many succumb, partly to quiet
them,
partly in order to enjoy the novelty of a camel ride
and
partly from an exaggerated idea of the distance. This
is, I
think, a mistake. The way is not long and it is all
downhill.
The novice taking his first ride on a camel is
so entirely
occupied with the new problems presented by
his steed that he
is unable to take notice of anything else.
It is also very
doubtful if he saves himself from fatigue.
We pass along the eastern side of the
Great Pyramid and
observe on our left three small
pyramids. According to
Herodotus the central one was the tomb
of the daughter
of Khufu and we have good evidence that the
southernmost
belonged to Henutsen, another of his
daughters.
We may therefore venture the suggestion that
these three
pyramids were tombs of children of the great king.
We now come to the
Sphinx. In
Greek mythology the
Sphinx was a monster who lived in Bœotia
and who propounded
a riddle to all comers. If they failed to
guess it
she devoured them. Œdipus solved it and the
Sphinx destroyed
herself.
So the name has become connected with
riddles and there is no
greater riddle in Egyptology to-day
than the
Sphinx. Some have conjectured that it is
older
than the pyramids. Others, because it is not
mentioned
by Herodotus and other early writers, assign it
to a very
late date. We now know that it was in existence in
the
time of Thuthmes IV (1423
B.C.); for excavation has
brought to
light a tablet between its paws in which Thuthmes
states that,
when he was once taking a nap beneath
its shade, the god
Harmakhis, to whom the
Sphinx is
dedicated,
appeared to him and commanded the prince “to
free him from the desert sand that encumbered him.”
When he became king he remembered the dream and
obeyed the command. Professor Petrie concludes from
the presence of an old tomb-shaft in the back that it
cannot
be as old as the pyramids and assigns it to the
period
between the old and middle kingdoms, say 3000
B.C. His
arguments do
not seem to me very strong, but I am inclined,
partly for
other reasons, to accept this date as most
probable.
The Arabs call the
Sphinx
“Abu-'l-Hol,” which means
“Father of Terror.” It has suffered
much from the ravages
of time and even more from man. But it
is still a
majestic and noble figure. One cannot appreciate it
at
the first glance. It must be studied and you must allow
it
time to grow upon you, so to speak. If possible, try to
get
the noisy mob and the polite but insistent and
out-of-place
photographer to leave you silently to
contemplate
its majesty. Then come again on a quiet
moonlight night
and see it first from afar, drawing slowly
nearer. Stand
right in
front of it. Then the indefinable charm of the
Sphinx will come upon you and never be
forgotten.
The sand has been removed at considerable expense
three times during the last century. It has now again
covered
the paws and memorial tablet of Thuthmes. I understand
that
money is being raised to free it once more
and to excavate it
thoroughly. It would be wise this time
to build a proper wall
and keep the enemy away.
Just beyond the
Sphinx is a
small granite temple, often
erroneously called the Temple of
the
Sphinx. It has only
a few bare rooms and is usually passed over very hurriedly.
The Arabs bring all travelers there, for its grated door is
the only excuse for the five-piaster ticket. It also gives
opportunity to light a little magnesium and extort a
bakshish.
Much can be seen and learned from this small temple.
We notice first that the stone is granite, the solid red granite
from
Aswan. The first
layer of the
second pyramid is of
this stone and it is also used in some of the passages and
chambers in this and in the third pyramids. But the
pyramids are, with these exceptions, built entirely from
stone from the quarries on the opposite bank of the river
or from the coarse limestone found right at hand. The
temple has some huge blocks, larger than any in the
pyramids and only excelled by obelisks and similar
monoliths as well as by the three great stones in the
outer
wall of the
Temple
of the Sun at Ba'albek. Notice how
carefully these
stones are polished and how skilfully they
are joined
together.
Each of the large pyramids had its own temple. This
one did not belong to a pyramid, but was probably built by
King Kaphra. It was connected by a road with his pyramid
temple. The passage by which we enter, after we
reach the
level, was part of this road. For we must remember
that we are
not in an underground temple, but
that its present appearance
is due to the sand which has
drifted over it.
When we come soon to the great temples up the river
we must recall this simple structure, two thousand years
old
at the time of their prime and glory. We shall then see
that
the sanctuary, the inner core of the temple, has as its
prototype such a temple as this with its one large bare
room.
Even here it had begun to grow beyond this stage,
for we find
a large anteroom and also some small chambers
for storerooms
or possibly for the accommodation of the
priests.
The pyramids and district have now had their full share
of attention and perhaps somewhat more. Yet there is a
great deal which I have not even mentioned. The Tomb
of Numbers, the Palm-tree Tomb, Campbell's Tomb and
the other pyramids are all worthy of notice, but must be
left to the guide-book.
I have purposely given considerable attention to the
pyramids; for I consider them the most interesting objects
near
Cairo, if not in all Egypt. On some
accounts,
such as antiquity and magnitude, they deserve
the latter
place. Moreover, I sincerely believe that the true
principle
is to see the best and most important things
carefully
and leisurely, leaving minor things to the last
or, if necessary,
leaving them out entirely. This principle
applies
to countries, museums, picture-galleries, in
short, to all
travel for pleasure and profit. Baedeker says,
“Travelers
who are not pressed for time … are recommended
to
make the circuit of the pyramid plateau.” My advice
is
that if you are pressed for time do not come to Egypt
but
make a shorter trip to countries nearer home. I
know
that cruises
are organized which allot seven days to Egypt
and solemnly
proclaim that this is ample time. Any one
who can seriously
consider such a trip does not deserve
anything better. The
only excuse that a sane man has
for taking such a trip is when
his pleasure (we cannot call
it rest) is obtained only by
constant jumping from one
land to another, by the mere delight
of motion.
Grant Allen thought a year would not be too long to
see Florence. Unfortunately the limitations of human existence
do not allow us to plan our tours on this scale.
But Egypt is
far distant for most of us. Surely it is not
wise to spend
time, strength, and money to go so far and
then to hurry back
after a week in this great country.
I have not left myself much space in this chapter for the
Cairo Museum. I have, however, just said
that I advise
devoting the entire attention to the few most
important objects.
Therefore I shall select some of them for
especial
consideration. I will go even further. I advise
you, at this
stage of your trip, to go to the museum, look at
one single
statue, and leave everything else there until the
return from
the Nile trip. Nothing will run away and a fire is
unlikely
in the new building. You will understand and
appreciate these things much better after you have become
more familiar with Egypt and its history, while if
you see them now you will not understand them and are
liable to get some wrong impressions which may make you
trouble.
The statue to which I refer is that of King
Khafra, No.
73 in the center of Room
B. You will remember that he
was the builder of the
second pyramid. It was found in
the pit in the granite temple near the
Sphinx. It is a masterpiece
and would
be a credit to any sculptor and to any
age. The Pharaoh is
seated, with his hands on his knees.
The royal
hawk, the emblem of the great god Ra, spreads
its protecting
wings over him. Note the attitude of the
hawk and that, while
fully exhibiting the artist's thought,
it in no way covers the
features or indeed any part of the
front of the figure. Every
detail of the body of
Khafra is
accurately reproduced. This diorite, be it remembered,
is the hardest stone known and it is almost impossible to
work in it to-day.
There are several other statues of this king found in the
same place and now in the same room. They are perhaps
worthy of inspection, though not to be compared with
No. 73.
The monuments of Arab art, the mosques, the bazaars,
and the native life of
Cairo are
important and interesting.
I rather advise that they be seen
before the river trip,
although I do not lay stress thereon.
The principal
mosques must be seen. That of Sultan Hassan is a
magnificent
ruin, now being restored by the Wakfs. El
Azhar
is the famous university, with an estimated
attendance
of nine thousand students from the length and
breadth of
the Muslim world. Mistaken and full of error their
theology
may be, childish and inaccurate their teaching
of
the sciences, yet professors and students worthily
maintain
the traditions of the institution, and in zeal
for learning
and personal self-denial and self-sacrifice in
pursuit of
education are excelled by no college in Europe or
America.
The citadel mosque founded by Mehemet Ali will be
visited
on account of its alabaster pillars and its
situation
and history. The view of
Cairo from the terrace is justly
celebrated and I recommend it for the first and for the
last
afternoon. An idea of the city can be obtained from
here as
from nowhere else, and it is also the place to get
the last
look to carry away with you. The tomb mosques
of the
Mamluks are in ruins and hardly worth a visit.
Those of the
Caliphs must be visited, for there is the exquisite
tomb
mosque of Kait Bey. Many authorities consider
this one of the
best examples of Saracenic art, and
many others, not
authorities, remember it as a singularly
perfect and pleasing
structure.
Curiosity usually carries the traveler to the performance
of the howling dervishes. This is a disgusting exhibition
with no redeeming grain of religion to sanctify it. It
is apparently run entirely for financial ends, and an
ordinary
company of ruffians can easily duplicate it. The
service
of the dancing dervishes has, however, no
unpleasing
features, although it hardly gives the
impression of a
devout religious ceremony. The dervish is
strictly a Persian
institution. He is looked upon by the
faithful, at least
among the Arabs, as a sort of semi-demented
and harmless
saint, entitled to respect and veneration in
proportion
to his mental affliction and ostentatious
parade of devoutness.
I have spoken above of Arab art, but we must note that
the era of mosque-building did not begin until the reign
of Turkish viceroys and rulers. The Arabs conquered
Egypt in 640, and from then until 868 all the rulers were
Arabs. But we have no mosque in this entire period except
the mosque of 'Amr. After 868 the rulers were
Turks and almost immediately began a series of mosques,
beginning with that of Ibn Tulun. The Arabs were more
apt to
appropriate the churches of their predecessors.
The Turk has
with us a reputation of an ignorant fanatic,
abhorring
education and enlightenment. But if we look
from India to
Spain we shall find that Turkish rulers were
distinguished as
patrons of art and literature. Perhaps
they did not create
much themselves, but they were able to
govern with a
strong hand and thus gave an opportunity
for art to develop.
They seem to have had much the
same admiration for the
beautiful that a business man of
the present day often has,
that is, a feeling of delight in it
without understanding or
comprehension of it.
The observant traveler will enjoy walking through the
unfrequented and ancient streets or rather lanes and alleys.
It is impossible to see these things from a carriage.
One
must do a little personal work in return for his pleasure.
These trips, as well as visits to the bazaars, can be
made at
odd intervals, for I firmly believe that one should
not
actively sightsee day after day or even for a continuous
day
of eight hours. The bazaars have lost much of
their ancient
interest and in fact have descended to the
level of mere shops
and even to very poor ones. There is
little to be found here
which cannot be as well obtained
at home with much less
trouble and equal results. An exception
might be made of the
brass bazaar, which is fairly
interesting and where purchases
may perhaps be made to
advantage. But one must remember that
the Oriental
merchants' methods of business are not ours.
Nothing
has a fixed selling-price, and the price is merely
the point
at which buyer and seller can meet. That is, in the
course
of the bargaining a figure is reached which the
seller is
willing to accept and the buyer is willing to give
and then
the trade can be consummated. This seems to possess
all
the elements of fairness. We do not like it because it
is
not our method. Then, too, we have not the time to
do
business in this way. But still it is in principle very
similar
to our methods, for our prices are fixed, not by
agreement
between buyer and seller, but by competition
between
various sellers forcing a certain fixed price.
Of
course, the merchant is glad to get as much as he can,
but
I myself
usually consider them honest when rightly dealt
with. I
remember purchasing a pair of saddle-bags recently
in
Jerusalem. The dealer asked three medjidji, which is
equivalent to twelve and three-quarter francs or $2.55.
On my
telling him that that was too much and adjuring
him by my
beard to name a proper price, he at once said
ten francs,
affirming that they had cost him two medjidji,
that is,
forty-six piasters in Damascus. This left him
eight piasters
for cost of transportation and legitimate
profit for himself.
I have no doubt that he was speaking
the truth. To be sure he
knew that I was frequently in
Jerusalem and somewhat familiar
with the actual value
of the article.
The ordinary traveler spending a few days in
Cairo absolutely
cannot get to see
anything of what might be called
Arab life. He can visit the
new bar, the
Sphinx bar, and
similar institutions and fraternize with the semi-European
and would-be wholly European youth of the gay metropolis,
or he can prowl around the native quarters and
doubtless can see much that is interesting. He can also
hear much of interest, but the language is sealed to him
or
only heard through his more or less competent
dragoman.
Some travelers delight in attending an Arab
wedding. He
is a poor dragoman who cannot, when properly paid,
arrange
for his patron to attend one. Of course, it is
done
by bribing the servants and probably with the tacit
knowledge
of the master of the house. Equally of course,
nothing
whatever is seen or understood by the stranger
except
the mere public rejoicing, which is practically
open to all
comers. There is something repellant and
indelicate in
the wish, and even sometimes eagerness, of the
passing
stranger to push or bribe his way into such a
private ceremony.
We should consider it the height of
impudence if
a stranger
should endeavor to obtain admittance to an
American wedding
under such circumstances, and yet I
have seen people who
considered themselves refined do
so in
Cairo, apparently conscious of no impropriety
therein.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER II
MEMPHIS AND SAQQARA
U
NTIL the latter part of the
last century the pleasure
travel on the Nile was entirely by
dahabiyeh.
This was merely a small sail-boat constructed
expressly
for the housing and conveyance of tourists.
Miss
Amelia B. Edwards has left us a classic description
of this
style of trip in “A Thousand Miles Up the Nile.” At
that
time there was no railroad and few steamers. To-day
the
dahabiyeh is nearly extinct. The few survivors are
usually
assisted more or less by the unpoetic but useful
tug. It
is still the most luxurious way and has the great
advantage
of allowing the time of stay at the various
places of interest
to be arranged to suit the wishes of the
traveler. He is
master of his own trip. He can stop at many
places which
the steamers, owing to the state of the river or
more probably
lack of time, pass by. The assistance of the
steam tug
enables one to make the trip in a comparatively
short time
and to make an exact itinerary and adhere to it.
The
dehabiyeh can also be taken at
Assiut, thus saving 250
miles at the
expense of
Saqqara, Medum, Benihasan
and
Tell el-Amarna .
Saqqara can easily be visited from
Cairo. With a tug and by sailing at
night, if safe and
necessary, the trip from
Assiut to
Aswan
and return can
be made in thirty days, visiting all the
monuments.
Many tourists go by rail to
Luxor and perhaps on to
Aswan. On their return they speak of
having “done the
Nile” and
tell their friends that it is a waste of time and
money to
spend three weeks on the steamer. For they have
seen
“everything” and are back in
Cairo in
less than a
week. They speak in utter ignorance of their
subject.
They cannot claim to have visited the Nile or to
have
traversed it at all. They have barely seen it and
have
never floated on it except in the passage of the
ferry at
Luxor. It is a fraud to speak of them as
Nile travelers.
They are merely visitors to
Luxor and
Aswan.
The happy medium for most people is the three-weeks'
trip by the tourist steamer. It can be shortened, if necessary,
to two weeks by using the train to
Assiut. The
steamer costs much less
than the dehabiyeh, at least for
one or two persons, and
consumes much less time, while
still enabling one to cover the
entire route and see the
principal things.
There are two lines of tourist steamers on the Nile, one
run by the Anglo-American Company and the other by
Messrs. Thomas Cook & Sons, Egypt, Ltd. Each has
its
own excellencies, which are fully set forth in their
respective
circulars and posters. The tour which I am
about
to describe was made on the steamer “Puritan” of
the
former company, sailing February 24, 1905.
On this particular morning some twenty-five or thirty
of the guests at the Continental Hotel are leaving on the
“Puritan.” So the broad veranda is temporarily given
up to
them and their belongings. The hotel porters are
experienced
and soon have everything and everybody on
the bus and off.
The drive through the European quarter and over the
long bridge takes but a few minutes. Arrived at the
steamer
some experience is to be gained by the traveler
who is new to
Egypt. He has paid a goodly sum in his
hotel bill
for the transportation of himself and luggage to
the steamer.
He has also liberally tipped a number of
attendants of whom
some were entitled thereto and some
were not. He now finds
that it requires three men to take
each piece from the bus to
his stateroom. A hotel porter
lowers it to the ground and
looks expectant. In fact he
expects and accepts a bakshish.
Then a stout negro or
Arab, with the legend “Nile Porter” on
his breast, carries
it down the bank and to the deck of the
steamer. He is not
connected with the hotel or the steamer,
and of course expects
a pecuniary reward. Then a member of the
crew,
assisted probably by a waiter, carries it finally to
the
stateroom and comes for his recompense. Such is
Egypt.
The impedimenta properly disposed of, one has
opportunity
to see the start. There is no crowd on shore.
The hotel
buses and cabs know that they will have no return
fare,
and return to the city at once There are no friends
to bid
good-by to the travelers. A few men and boys gather
on
the banks and are reinforced by some of the
company's
officials who have come down to see that
everything is in
order. Promptly at ten o'clock the whistle
blows and the
“Puritan” starts on her long voyage.
Hashim, the dragoman, now makes his appearance on
the deck to point out the objects of interest. But most of
us
have been a week or more in
Cairo and are
familiar with
them. Moreover, many are busy getting settled in
their
staterooms. The view of
Cairo, with the mosque of
Mehemet Ali
and the
Mokattam hills in the
background
on the one hand, and the three great pyramids a
few miles
distant on the other, is one of the most beautiful
in Egypt.
But it is neglected in the bustle of the start or
perhaps in
the eagerness with which people are looking at the
traditional
site of the resting-place of Moses in the
bulrushes.
We pass rapidly by the palace of
Gizeh, until lately the
home of the Egyptian
Museum, and, on the other side, the
town of
Old Cairo . Those two tall and slender minarets
of the citadel mosque hold the most conspicuous place in
the landscape. The steamer follows the bends of the river
causing them continually to change their relative
positions.
They represent the city beneath them, the
capital and center
of Egypt for the last thousand years of
Muslim rule. On
the other side, the great pyramids, with those
of
Abusir and the hoary
Step Pyramid of
Saqqara, point back five
thousand
years to the time of the third and fourth dynasties,
the
height of the power and glory of the Ancient
Empire.
Luncheon is served early, as we shall arrive at Bedrashen
before one o'clock. From here we make the excursion to
the ruins of
Memphis
and
Saqqara. Many travelers have
a confused idea of these two places.
Memphis was the
capital of Egypt in
the early empire and even down to the
founding of
Alexandria by Alexander the Great was
its
largest city. With reference to the country as a whole
it
held practically the same position that
Cairo does to-day,—
at
the end of the long narrow strip of
Upper
Egypt and at
the head of the broad and fertile delta.
Saqqara is the
name
of a small Arab village on the edge of the desert.
The name,
however, is applied to the vast cemetery, the
burial-place for
the people of the great city of
Memphis.
Countless multitudes found their last
resting-place here.
If we grant
Memphis an existence of 5,000 years and an
average population of 500,000, with a mean life of
thirty-three
years, we get the enormous total of
75,000,000.
Many authorities would consider this a low
estimate. Of
course the great majority were simply buried in
the sand
and no trace of them remains. Only the kings and
the
greatest of
the nobility could have tombs. We shall consider
them at
length later in this chapter.
The steamer comes to the landing-place where a sufficient
supply of donkeys and a superabundant supply of natives
are gathered. Ten years ago the tourist rode about
Cairo on donkeys. These
animals seem to be as numerous now,
but it is rather unusual
to see a traveler mounted on one
of them. So most of our
passengers are to make their first
essay in donkey-riding
to-day. Some of them have never ridden
on any animal and come
forward with many misgivings.
The gentlemen assist the ladies
belonging to them, Hashim
helps the unprotected, and at last
we are all off. The dragoman
comes last, for there is a
regular route to be followed
and every donkey boy knows it.
This arrangement is best,
for Hashim can hasten a slow donkey
boy, take charge
where there is an accident, and keep order
generally. At
the first halt the party come together and
thereafter less
time is lost in mounting and starting, for
each person has
his donkey boy or, more correctly, each donkey
boy has his
victim, thus removing the necessity for much of
the tumult
and confusion.
We cross the railway and clatter through Bedrashen, a
typical native village. Soon we dismount at the colossal
statue of Ramses II. This is the smaller one and measures,
including the crown, thirty-one and one-half feet.
It was
discovered as recently as 1888. A few minutes'
walk and we
come to the other statue. This is forty-two
feet high,
corresponding almost exactly with the measurements
given by
Herodotus (thirty cubits of one and one-half
feet each). It is
much the finer statue, though both
are remarkable works and
could be recognized as Ramses
from their likeness to his
mummy, had we no other means of
identification.
Before we pass on, let us stop for a moment on the platform
and think of the great city once here. These two
statues stood together at the entrance of the great Temple
of Ptah. According to good authorities, the city was at
least eight miles in diameter, and we are perhaps at the
center. Those great mounds of rubbish, these two
statues, and a few other fragments are all that remain
to-day of the first and largest city of Egypt and of the
ancient world.
The cause of this practically complete disappearance,
even of ruins, lies in the fact that the stone was all taken
across the river to build Fostat and
Cairo. When
Thebes decayed and became deserted no new city was near to
claim its building-material. Moreover,
Memphis was not
the capital at the
time of the great builders, and so probably
did not contain as
many large stone structures as
Thebes. The ordinary buildings were of
brick made of
Nile mud and have long since disappeared. Such
material
does not admit of houses of more than two or at
most
three stories and that perhaps explains the vast area
of the
city spoken of by ancient authorities, without
compelling
us to assume a correspondingly large
population.
The mud hut, with its strongly locked door, built around
the large statue, has puzzled some of us. It cannot be to
guard it from thieves. No, it is not to protect it from
the
ignorant Arab rascal, but from the cultured tourist,
who
might add his insignificant name to that of the great
Ramses
or absentmindedly chip off a piece of the ear or
nose.
Thanks to this care, the large statue is disfigured
only by
the ravages of time.
We mount again and ride toward the desert. The way
lies through tall palm-groves, now in blossom, or by the
side
of fields of ripening wheat. We leave the village of
Saqqara on our left and ascend the
plateau. We find ourselves
near the
Step Pyramid and should stop for a few
moments to survey the scene. This peculiar-shaped and
crumbling pyramid has long been thought to be the oldest
building, or rather structure, in the world. It is tolerably certain
that it was built by Zeser, the second king of the third
dynasty, and the dates assigned to that king range from
B.C. 4400 to
B.C. 3900. Professor Petrie says
B.C. 4175, while
Maspero would put
him 200 years earlier. At all events
this pyramid had attained
a respectable age when those at
Gizeh were building. It is true that near
Abydos, and also
at
other places in Egypt, graves of a much earlier date have
been
found. But such remains are not as impressive to the
beholder
as that old, crumbling pyramid, still nearly two
hundred feet
high. We can see it and gaze upon it and try
to comprehend its
age. Six thousand years! Three hundred
generations of men!
Fifty times the age of the United
States of America!
Practically all that we call the history
of the world has
occurred since that heap of stone was
set up.
Nothing is gained by going nearer. In fact, the best
view of it is obtained from the plateau, and it would be a
good idea for Hashim to stop here and point out some of
the
other objects in sight which we are not going to visit.
But he
is anxious to get on, and the whole cavalcade ride
straight to
Mariette's House.
I have said that
Saqqara was
the burial-place of ancient
Memphis. Therefore some knowledge of the
Egyptian
ideas of death, burial, and the future life of
the soul is
almost indispensable.
The ancient Egyptians realized strongly the brevity of
human life. Unwilling to believe death the end of all
existence, they developed a belief in the life of the soul
beyond the
grave. They regarded man as made up of four
different
entities, each complete in itself, but in life all
joined
together in the body. These elements were the
body, the double
or Ka, the soul (Ba), and the Khu, the
“Luminous” or divine
spark. The Ka was a sort of
spiritual body, corresponding to
the real body; that is, the
Ka of a man was thought of as and
represented as a man,
that of a woman as a woman, and that of
a child as a child.
In statues and sculptures it is always
represented as naked
and with its own peculiar sign, two
uplifted arms above the
head. During life it was bound to the
body and never left
it, and after death it remained with the
mummy in the
tomb. It required food and drink, which had to be
provided
by the living. The mummy and the Ka stayed in
the tomb, while the Ba and the Khu went to the regions of
the gods. They, however, were supposed to visit the
mummy and Ka at frequent intervals.
A man's life on earth was comparatively short, while his
existence in the tomb would be endless. So the tomb was
regarded as a dwelling-house, the “eternal home” of the
soul, and it was built to meet the requirements of the
deceased in his life after death. It always has three
parts,—
the public rooms, the private apartments of the
soul, and
the connecting shaft or corridor. The friends and
relatives
assembled in the public rooms at the time of
burial
and on stated occasions thereafter. Here they
brought
their offerings of food for the Ka. These rooms
were
usually above ground or in the side of a cliff. They
were
well lighted and ornamented with scenes from the life
of
the departed. Thus the Ka would be continually
reminded
of his early existence. In the tombs of the
early
empire the mummy-chamber and corridor were
usually
entirely bare. Occasionally the vault was
decorated, and
it was
sometimes adorned with inscriptions from the Book
of the Dead.
At
Saqqara we find even the
public rooms of the tombs
deep down in the sand. But we must
remember that this
is due to the drifting in of the sand from
the desert in the
course of ages. When these tombs were
constructed the
part containing the public rooms was above
ground and
usually a building made of limestone or of brick.
The
whole cemetery looked like a city and extended for
many
miles along the edge of the desert, from the
pyramids
of
Abu
Roash on the north to those of
Dahshur, a distance
of about fifteen miles. Perhaps it
is too much to consider
it as one unbroken line, for it was
rather a series of burial-cities.
They looked very much like
the modern Egyptian
cemetery of to-day. We shall see good
examples above
Minieh and at
Assiut. A house is built over the grave just
as in olden times. The family and friends assemble to-day
at certain festivals, such as the Kurban Bairam, to pray
for
and live with their dead. The poorer classes take a
tent
with them for the occasion, the well-to-do have a
house
similar to an ordinary dwelling, and the rulers have
a tomb
mosque. This is in exact analogy with ancient times.
These low houses are called “mastabas.” The word
mastaba means a bench, and refers especially to the benches
outside of a shop or coffee-house. The appearance of the
low
tomb-house is somewhat similar, hence the name mastaba
or
mastaba-tomb.
Some authorities have thought the pyramid a development
or growth from the mastaba. This idea is untenable,
for if that were the case the chapel would be in the
pyramid
and the tomb-chamber beneath. But the chapel is
always
in the form of a pyramid-temple outside of and on
the
eastern side of the pyramid. The pyramid itself
contained
the
tomb-chamber, with the sarcophagus and mummy.
It was therefore
merely a special form of tomb for royalty
only.
We go first to the
Apis tombs.
These were discovered
by Mariette in 1851. This was the
beginning of his
Egyptian career. To him we owe much as a
scholar and
a discoverer. He is honored as the founder of the
present
Cairo Museum and his body rests in its
grounds.
The worship of a sacred animal was common in ancient
Egypt. In one nome or district, the inhabitants honored
the
cat, in others the dog, ibis, crocodile, etc. Grave difficulties
and sometimes war arose from the fact that an animal
was
worshiped as a god in one nome and in the next
was regarded as
a pest and a nuisance. Ptah was the
principal deity of
Memphis, and the bull was sacred to
him. But instead of worshipping and protecting the
whole bovine race, one animal having certain special
marks was sought out and installed in the temple as a god.
He was called Apis and after his death his spirit was
supposed
to be united with that of Osiris. He was then
called Oser-hape, in Greek Osorapis, whence the words
Serapis and
Serapeum.
The cult of Apis seems to have
been introduced as early as the
second dynasty and the
last-known Apis was that shown to the
Emperor Julian
II in
A.D. 363. The earliest one buried here died in the
reign
of Amenhotep III (XVIIIth dynasty,
B.C.
1400).
There are three series of tombs, but only the latest is at
present accessible to visitors. We enter a spacious
chamber
and light our candles. Two or three large torches
carried
by the guards would serve much better than the
individual
candle. Near the entrance we stumble upon a
huge lid
and find the sarcophagus to which it belongs a little
farther
on. We then enter a long gallery with large
chambers on
each side.
There are twenty-four of these giant sarcophagi
averaging
about sixty-five tons in weight. They can be
quickly seen. The
air in the corridor is hot and full of
dust, so we are all
glad to return to the light of day.
We go now to the tomb of Ptah-hetep. This is a typical
mastaba tomb. It seems to have been erroneously considered
as comparatively uninteresting. A few years ago
the Egyptian Exploration Fund obtained permission to
excavate it with the condition that after examination it
should be sanded up again. They faithfully kept their
word, but it was soon opened again by the Government
and is now one of the regular sights of
Saqqara. Ptah-hetep
was a priest who
lived in the time of the fifth dynasty.
Part of the tomb
belonged to his son, Akhet-hetep. Like
all painted or
sculptured tombs of the Early and Middle
Empires, the subjects
are entirely from the daily life of the
proprietor, and the
most natural explanation is that this
was done in order that
the Ka, or spirit of the deceased,
might see in the
funeral-chamber the scenes to which he
had been accustomed in
life. Another theory is that his life
in the spirit world was
to be the duplicate of that on earth,
hence the representation
really refers to that existence.
But it seems more probable
that when it became the custom
for the great and wealthy to
ornament their “eternal
homes” the artist chose the subjects
nearest at hand, the
great possessions and daily life of the
man to be honored.
In fact, in this particular tomb we have a
portrait of the
sculptor himself, Ptah-nai-onkh. Sometimes the
learned
are apt to go too far afield looking for theories
and pass by
the obvious facts.
Our attention is first attracted by the freshness and
clearness of the work. It cannot be six thousand years
old!
But the evidence is too strong, and we cease to doubt.
After we have
proceeded farther on our journey we shall
come to look on such
ruins as the temples of Dendera and
Edfu, dating from about the time of
Christ, as recent and
modern. I do not intend to enter here
into a minute description
of the reliefs in these tombs. Those
of my
readers who are about to visit Egypt can see for
themselves,
and will have the careful descriptions of the
Baedeker and
Murray to guide them. The others will find the
subject
treated fully in such a book as Erman's “Life in
Ancient
Egypt.”
Ptah-hetep is supposed to be the author of the oldest
book in the world,—the “Proverbs of Ptah-hetep.” The
earliest copy is now in the National Library at Paris, and
probably dates from the twelfth dynasty (2600 B.C.). It
seems, however, to have been copied from
an older
manuscript. Ptah-hetep attained the great age of
one
hundred and fifteen years. He filled many high
offices,
and toward the close of his life composed this
book of
moral precepts and reflections, which is well worth
reading,
not only on account of its antiquity, but for its
own
worth.
The tomb of Ti is of the same kind and type. It is
perhaps the best-known tomb at
Saqqara.
Ti was a man
of humble origin, but he attained to the highest
rank. The
daughter of the pharaoh was given him to wife, and
his
children held the rank of princes. His last
resting-place
befits the great and self-made man. We
wander through
the chambers and corridors and again marvel at
the wonderful
work, and still more at its remarkable
preservation.
The sculptures represent the daily life of
Ti and that of his
household. There are several gigantic
representations of
the deceased. We see his servants plowing,
sowing, and
reaping, tending flocks of animals and birds, or
preparing
food.
Carpenters and blacksmiths are at their daily work.
We see Ti
engaged in hunting, sailing, receiving accounts
and presents.
One of the most interesting scenes represents
him sailing
through the marshes and reminds one of
the Assyrian reliefs in
the British Museum.
We have now consumed all the allotted time. One
more tomb, that of Meruka, must be hastily visited. It is
quite large and contains thirty-one rooms. A suite of them
belonged to his wife, Hert-watet-khet, and another to his
son,
Meri-teti. He lived in the time of the sixth dynasty.
The
walls are covered with subjects from his life, similar
to
those in the tombs of Ptah-hetep and Ti.
There are several other tombs of considerable interest
here, but time, and Hashim, will not permit us to visit
them. For many reasons I object to this hasty visit to
Saqqara on the first day of the Nile
trip. It is a long
donkey ride for the beginner. This,
perhaps, is not so
much to be deplored, for it gives him a
good breaking-in.
But two or three hours is an absurdly short
time to spend
here. If these tombs were not in the same place,
that
amount of time would be given to each. And the
other
less important tombs and monuments, if situated
elsewhere,
would each have its place on the program. But
many of
our company have apparently seen all they care to
see.
Even those most interested have come to the point
of
fatigue and have had all that they can take in and
digest
in one afternoon.
At all events it is important that
Saqqara be visited
before the monuments farther up
the river. Most of its
tombs are of the Ancient Empire and,
with the pyramids
and smaller objects in the museum, are all
that we shall see
of that period. Moreover, it is well to have
an important
and interesting excursion on this first day. I
fear that
some of us
would get restless if we had none until we get to
Benihasan on
Sunday.
I wonder that these tombs are not lighted by electricity,
as are the
tombs of the
kings at
Thebes. It would
certainly
cost less than it does there. It would greatly
aid the
visitor and, most important of all, keep them
uninjured
for future years. The careless use of candles
and of magnesium
works damage every season.
Before we descend from the plateau I insist that my
party shall stop and at least have pointed out to them the
pyramids of Unas, Pepi I and II, and the mastaba el
Firaun.
There is also a striking view of the Nile. In the
foreground
we have the green and yellow fields and the
palm-groves, then
the valley of the river, and farther away
the Mokattam range,
the minarets of Mehemet Ali, and the
pyramids. But many of us
are tired and anxious to get
back to the steamer. It has been
a hard but interesting
afternoon for all.
At the shore we say farewell to the donkey and boy.
This would seem to be a simple matter, as the time of
acquaintance has been too short for the growth of much
affection on either side. But he expects a parting token of
your esteem. You have probably heard the word bakshish.
I have
already had occasion to mention it several
times. It usually
salutes the traveler even before he sets
foot on shore at
Alexandria. The donkey boy has
used
it constantly to-day. Judging and hoping that he has
a
tyro in charge, and knowing that at any rate he has a
foreign
tourist, an American, rich, to whom a piaster is
of no account,
he has done his best with you. He has hardly
started when he demands a shilling bakshish because he
has a good donkey. Arrived at the colossi, he begs for
another to buy grass for the said donkey. At
Saqqara he
asks for
another to buy oranges for himself. But at the
end of the trip
he makes a legitimate demand for bakshish
for his services.
Most travelers do not understand this
matter. They argue that
the donkey boy should be paid
wages. Some of the tourist
companies give the impression
that the sum paid them for the
trip covers all these expenses.
The dragoman pays for the
donkey, but the boy gets
nothing from him. Most of his pay
comes directly from
you. The plan has its advantages. If he
were paid a
fixed sum whether he behaved well or ill, whether
he did
his duty or not, he would have no incentive except
inborn
good moral character to make him diligent and
well-behaved.
But if his reward for his afternoon's work
directly
depends upon the man riding his donkey and who
sees him
all the time, native excellence of character is
considerably
strengthened and made to show itself. So if
he has done his
duty faithfully give him a fair bakshish. Of
course he will
not seem satisfied with it, for there is always
the hope of
extracting something more. But after that
possibility has
gone he will come to the conclusion that it is
all right and
will try for more from his next victim.
At last all the passengers are on board and the steamer
starts again in order to cover a few miles, for it is a
fine
moonlight evening. The rais is anxious to get a
good
start, for he knows that delays are always likely and
he
therefore likes to keep ahead of time.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER III
A QUIET DAY ON THE RIVER
AT daybreak we are off again
on our voyage. Breakfast
is not served until half past eight,
but there is
no law against coming on deck earlier. And
those
who do are amply repaid. It is cool and the air is
fresh
and clear. The Egyptian peasant goes to bed at
dark
and rises at sunrise. His daily work begins then. So
the
native sail-boats are making the best of wind and
current,
the shadufs and sakiyehs are in full operation,
and the village
girls are filling their water-jars on the
shore. Native
travelers are riding along the river embankment
on donkeys
and camels. On all sides we see evidences of life
and
industry.
The breakfast is decidedly good. The hour in the open
air enables one to enjoy it more than if he comes straight
from the sleeping-cabin to the table. In Egypt we find
that we
are furnished a rather more substantial breakfast
than on the
continent of Europe. It is hardly equal to the
proper American
meal of that name, but is quite sufficient.
There is no sightseeing on the program for to-day, or,
more correctly, no sightseeing expedition. For are we not
seeing sights all day which are novel and interesting to
us
from the West? The life on the river, the life of
Egypt
and of the Egyptian of to-day, is before us, and it
is just
this which the traveler by boat sees and which those
who
travel by rail do not. For there is a certain
knowledge,
an inner
acquaintance with the people and land which
cannot be gained
from books, and is hidden from those
who are transported from
Cairo to
Luxor in a night, on to
Aswan in a few hours more and then back
to
Cairo in
another
jump. A man cannot mark the exact time when
he acquires this
knowledge and say, “Yesterday I had it
not; to-day I have it.”
The quiet day also gives us a chance to get settled in
our rooms and to get acquainted with the “Puritan,” our
fellow-passengers, and the ship's company, with whom we
are to spend the next three weeks. It also affords an
opportunity
to think over our excursion of yesterday and
to
prepare for that of to-morrow. And just here let me
say
a word about the guide-book and its uses. A good one
is
a necessity to the traveler who wishes to understand,
even
to a small degree, the wonders which he is to see.
There
are persons who travel and boast that they have no
need of
a guide-book. They are doubtless also exempt from
the
need of dictionaries, encyclopedias, and kindred
works.
The time to study the Baedeker or Murray is before
and
after the excursion. I consider it a good plan to
read
carefully the description and history of the place to
be
visited and make a memorandum of things to be
specially
noticed. Then, at the next convenient time after
the re-return
to the steamer or hotel, read the book again and
try
to fix what you have seen firmly in the memory. But
while actually at the temple or tomb use your time and
your eyes in seeing it. For you have come a long journey
to see it and now is the time to do so. The book will
remain
in your possession and can be read even after
your
return to your home.
I have said that this is the time to get acquainted with
the “Puritan” and her
personnel, and so I feel that I must
say a little
about them for the benefit of those of my readers
who cannot
make the journey in person, or do so in another
way or on
another boat. The “Puritan” has been constructed
expressly for
the Nile service. She is two hundred
feet long and has three
decks. On the main deck are the
spacious dining-saloon, the
galley, storerooms, officers'
quarters, etc. The boilers and
furnaces are in the bow
and the steam is brought aft to the
engine. The propelling
force is a huge stern paddle-wheel
similar to those on our
Mississippi steamers. The upper deck
is entirely devoted
to staterooms. The promenade deck has more
rooms and
also a very comfortable
jumoir and ladies' saloon. A
feature of
the latter is the open fireplace. And it is often
in use and
much appreciated, for the evenings are chilly
and sometimes
even cold. It is a surprise to learn that
this large steamer
draws only about two feet of water.
The Nile in February and
March is sometimes quite shallow
and we shall probably find
ourselves on the sand
occasionally even with this light
draught.
Hashim, the dragoman, is the person with whom we
come most in contact. It is his duty to manage the excursions
and to instruct us in the history, archæology, and
religion of
Egypt. He expects a bakshish as a reward for
his labor and
learning at the end of the trip. So he takes
care not to be
long out of the sight and mind of his
flock.
He gives a “lecture” in the evening. But he has
learned that a funny story or a joke wins the applause of
his
audience and that a talk on the tomb or temple to be
visited
is beyond many of them as well as of himself. He
refers
proudly to his knowledge of the hieroglyphs and
points out a
few letters or a
cartouche which he has
seen
so often that he cannot help knowing it. He has
also
learned the
figures of the principal gods and points them
out on all
occasions. But beyond this he knows little or
nothing. If he
has sixty people and only fifteen minutes
allotted to an
important temple, what can he do, be he ever
so learned? I do
not wish to do him an injustice. The
Egyptian dragoman is
good-natured, honest, and obliging.
The best of them are on
the tourist steamers. But my
advice to the traveler is to let
the dragoman attend to the
saddling and marshaling of the
donkeys. Let him manage
the expedition. But let the more eager
ones crowd
around him at the time of his explanations. Fall a
little
behind the crowd and work it out for yourself.
Often the
“ghaffir,” or guardian, can speak a little English,
and he is
always intelligent and anxious to show his charge. A
piaster
amply rewards him.
On one of my former trips our dragoman was quite
proud of the fact that his name was in the Baedeker. He
was
boasting of this one day among the sailors, and to
oblige him
I translated the words literally, “Guides and
donkeys. At
Luxor, Muhammad Khalil.” There was
no indication as to which group he belonged, and the
sailors all agreed that no distinction could be made, for
all
guides were also donkeys.
The manager is in charge of the ship. He is not the
captain, but rather the company's representative, or almost
the purser. He collects the tickets, controls the itinerary,
buys the supplies, and keeps in communication with the
office
in
Cairo. The rais fills the place of
captain and pilot.
He knows the river thoroughly, and all the
movements of
the steamer are under his command. So far as I
know,
no foreigner has ever become sufficiently acquainted
with
the river and skilful in detecting the hidden shoals,
to
attain to this position. The engineer is, of course, in
charge
of his
department. Then we have a steward, waiters,
cooks, sailors,
and firemen.
Soon after breakfast we see the pyramid of Medum.
The Arabs call it the Haram el-Kaddab, or
false
pyramid.
It was built by Seneferu, the last king of
the third dynasty
and is the oldest dated monument in Egypt.
The surrounding
tombs are of great interest. They are quite
accessible,
being only about an hour's ride from the
river.
I cannot understand why arrangements are not made
for
the passengers on the tourist steamers to stop here.
If
necessary it would be better to omit
Saqqara from their
program, for the
latter can be easily and more satisfactorily
visited from
Cairo.
The shape of the pyramid is quite peculiar. It is built in
three courses, or stages, and has a total height of two
hundred
and thirty feet. On the eastern side is a perfect
pyramid
temple, connected with the pyramid by an open
court
in which the altar still stands. It has been
reburied in the
sand. A great deal of information was obtained
from
graffiti made by visitors during the Middle and New
Empires.
Many of the treasures of the
Cairo Museum came
from this
necropolis. The two fine statues of Rahotep and
his wife
Nefert were found in their tomb here. Some of
the inscriptions
show us the earliest forms of hieroglyphs,
the oldest writing
in Egypt, if not in the world. The
tombs date from the third
and fourth dynasties and antedate
those at
Saqqara.
We keep steadily on our way. The current is quite
swift and our progress slow. The Nile is not generally
regarded as a river possessing beautiful scenery. It is true
that, aside from the ancient remains, the most interesting
thing is the life of the people on the banks. But these very
banks have a scenery of their own which is new, strange,
and
fascinating to us. On the promenade deck we are
above the high
embankment and overlook the country up
to the line of the
desert on either side. So we practically
see from the steamer
the entire cultivable country of Egypt
for a distance of five
hundred and eighty-three miles, from
Cairo to
Aswan. We must, however, except the large and
fertile district called the
Fayum.
Usually there is a strip
of green cultivable land between the
river and the mountains,
but at times it comes close to the
mountain range on
the east bank and we find bare limestone
cliffs towering
two or three thousand feet above our heads.
We pass
Beni Suef, a large
town and the capital of the
province. It used to be the port,
so to speak, for the
Fayum. A large commerce passed through
it. Much of
this now goes by rail. From the village of Der
Byad, on
the opposite bank, a route leads to the Coptic
monasteries
of St. Anthony and St. Paul, near the
Red Sea.
Since passing the pyramid of Medum, early in the morning,
we have seen few ancient remains and nothing which
called for special attention. But the entire valley from
Memphis on was thickly populated and
contained many
large cities. The rubbish-heaps and cemeteries
have
yielded much information and many valuable treasures
to
scholars and explorers. Near the town of Abu
Girga are
the mounds of
Behnesa, the ancient Oxyrrhinkhos.
This
city came into prominence in the early Christian
centuries.
It is famous now on account of the numerous
fragments
of manuscripts discovered here in 1897. The
logia
or sayings of our Lord have aroused great interest
in the
theological world and important parts of classic
authors
were also found.
A little farther on we come to the sugar factory of
Sheikh Fadl. It forms a town by itself,
but is not a native
village of
mud huts. The houses for the workmen are
built in Italian
style and look clean and comfortable. A
small railway brings
the sugar-cane from the plantations
to the factory. Numerous
native boats loaded with it lie
along the bank. It is a busy
scene and shows the strong
contrast between native industry
left to itself and the same
directed by Europeans.
The mountains on the eastern bank come close to the
river and we approach the lofty and precipitous cliffs called
“Gebel et-Ter,” which means “Mountain of the Bird.”
The Arab
legend narrates that each year the birds assemble
here from
all parts of the country. They choose one of
their number to
remain on guard here until the next meeting.
Hence the name.
On the top stands the Coptic convent of “Our Lady
Mary the Virgin.” Like all Coptic convents of the present
day,
it is really a walled village and the inhabitants do not
exactly lead a convent life. They live very much as other
natives. It used to be their custom to swim out to passing
vessels and beg for bakshish from the rich and charitable
tourists, but the decline of the dahabiyeh and the rise of the
steamer, together with an edict from the Coptic patriarch,
have put an end to this method of taking up a collection.
A fantasia, or native dance, is organized by the sailors
in the latter part of the afternoon. They envy the
waiters,
whose duties allow them to keep in close touch
with the passengers,
enabling them to extract sundry small
bakshishes
as opportunity offers and to count on a large
one at the
end of the trip. So they arrange a concert with the
delightful
feature of a collection. The plate is not
merely
passed once, but is available throughout the entire
performance.
Special attention is called to it at
intervals.
The music is
only the continual rhythmic beating of the
tom-tom and a
monotonous chorus. But all are happy and
it is worth something
to see their simple enjoyment.
Late in the evening we tie up at
Minieh. We are far
beyond the usual halting-place
for the second night from
Cairo. It seems that the time of opening
the railroad
drawbridge at
Nag
Hamadi has been changed, thus making
it necessary
to arrive there earlier than heretofore.
For in Egypt a
drawbridge does not open at any moment
when a vessel wishes to
pass through. There are certain
fixed hours at which it is
opened and it behooves all travelers,
by river or road, to
know these hours. The drawbridge
on the road from
Cairo to the pyramids is usually
open for two hours shortly after noon. An imposing fleet
gathers to pass in each direction. During this time the
bridge is closed to traffic. Frequently a careless or
uninformed
tourist is caught on the wrong side and has
ample
opportunity, if his temper permits, to view the
nautical
pageant.
Minieh is one hundred and
fifty miles from
Cairo and
our largest river city thus far. At this hour of the night
there is not opportunity to see the place. It boasts,
according
to the guide-book, a large sugar factory, a busy
marketplace
and a crowded harbor.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER IV
BENIHASAN
IT is only eighteen miles to
Benihasan and we are to arrive
there at breakfast time. Most
of the passengers
are looking forward eagerly to the
excursion. They
have recovered from the languor of yesterday
and the
fatigue of the day before. They are tired of the
comparatively
small decks of the steamer and are anxious
to do
something.
Some of us regret that we have an excursion to-day. It
is Sunday and, according to orthodox Christian ideas,
should be kept as a day of rest. But there are
difficulties
in keeping the Sabbath exactly as we are in
the habit of
doing at home. There are three holy days in this
land.
The Muslims, who form the majority of the
inhabitants,
keep Friday; the Jews observe Saturday and
the Christians
Sunday. It would be manifestly unjust to expect
our
crew to work on Friday and to rest on Sunday, as to
keep
our Sabbath would be to desecrate theirs. Some years
ago
I was conducting a party up the river in a steamer
chartered
for them and therefore entirely under my
control. A
gentleman requested that the steamer tie up on
Sunday so
that the crew could have a nice quiet Sabbath. When
informed
that their day of rest was Friday he seemed to
think that it made no difference as he was sure that the
Lord had commanded the observance of Sunday. But the
real difficulty came when he and those whom he represented
were told
that to rest for three Sundays meant
either considerable loss
of sightseeing or an extra payment
for three more days on the
river. It is really impossible to
arrange an itinerary for a
three-weeks' trip on the river
and entirely avoid travel and
sightseeing on Sunday.
A long blast of the whistle informs the villagers of our
approach. This is entirely unnecessary, as they have
become
quite skilful in keeping track of the days on which
to
expect the steamer laden with tourists and bakshish.
As
soon as the steamer is fast and before the gang-plank
is
run ashore Hashim lands to chat with the sheikh of
the
donkey boys and incidentally to oversee the saddling
of
the host. The entire population of the village is
here.
The distribution of the saddles is a scene of wild
confusion.
Boys and men fight for them, for the possession
of
one means a chance to serve as donkey boy for a
wealthy
tourist with the practical certainty of a bakshish
equal to
a day's wages and untold possibilities if the tourist
is impressionable.
At the more important places, such as
Assiut,
Luxor, and
Aswan, the donkeys
are fitted with very
satisfactory men's saddles, and only the
required number
of side-saddles have to be provided from the
steamer. But
at Benihasan the plain, unadorned donkey is all
that is
furnished from the village.
The signal is given for the passengers to land, and we at
once discover that the scramble and struggle at Bedrashen
was a mild incident and the donkey boys there quiet and,
if anything, spiritless. Hashim, aided by his kurbatch and
some of the sailors, does his best to keep order, or, more
properly speaking, to reduce the disorder. But he has
been there before and knows the hopelessness of the
attempt.
Two or more boys seize each tourist, the one
who
prevails gets him mounted and off they go, regardless
of
previous
instructions to keep together and not to gallop.
After a
half-hour's ride all gather together at the Speos
Artemidos.
This is a small rock temple dedicated to the lion-headed
goddess Pasht. The cat was sacred to her and there was
a large cemetery for those animals. The temple was begun
by Queen Hatasu and Thuthmes III at the time of their
joint reign (B.C.
1500). After Hatasu's death Thuthmes
erased her name. About
two hundred years later Seti I
put his name in the blanks. He
left the work of his predecessors
untouched and found another
place for reliefs in
his honor.
This temple was never completed. It is, however, the
only example of the rock temple which most of us will see.
Abu Simbel in
Nubia is the largest and best example of
this style and will be described further on. There are several
others above the
first
cataract.
After Hashim has made his speech and pointed out a
few figures we remount and hasten on to the tombs.
The usual custom is to dismount at the foot of the hill
and walk up. There is no necessity for so doing, for the
donkeys are perfectly able to carry the traveler up. The
donkey boys try to have the first person dismount and
then the others follow suit. To avoid that I ride ahead
and appear totally indifferent to all suggestions to
dismount.
The others all follow to the terrace where
the
tombs are. Arrived at the terrace, we have a few
moments
to get breath and to enjoy a fine panoramic
view.
We are perhaps two hundred feet above the river
and
can see
Minieh
far to the north and the sugar-factory at
Roda on the south. This includes some
forty miles of
river. The cultivated land is almost entirely
on the west
bank. We overlook it all and even far beyond into
the
Libyan Desert. We shall have a similar
view to-morrow
afternoon, but from the opposite side of the
river.
The tombs belonged to the nobles of the district at the
time of the eleventh and twelfth dynasties. This was about
2700
B.C. or in round
numbers a thousand years later than
the tombs we
saw at
Saqqara. We know little of the
period from the
sixth to the eleventh dynasty. It seems to
have been a time of
decadence in arts and probably also
of dissension and civil
war. The twelfth dynasty was the
beginning of the Middle
Empire and the time of the revival
in arts and power. But
still the work in these tombs
seems inferior to that of the
time of Ti and Ptah-hetep.
True they have been more exposed to
damage at the
hands of men, for they have always been more or
less
open and, like many other tombs and temples, have
been
used as dwelling-places by the natives.
There are thirty-nine tombs, and, as is customary, each
is numbered. We have time only to see the most
interesting.
But it is better to see a few of the best and
to spend
all our time on them than to try merely to go into
all. We
cannot expect to study them in an hour or so, or in
fact to
study any of the monuments in a three-weeks' trip.
But
we can see them, observe the important features, and
carry
away a good mental picture for future use.
Each of the tombs consists of a large room excavated in
the rock, which corresponds to the funeral chapel at
Saqqara,
and one or more
deep mummy pits. The large chamber
is decorated with
interesting scenes from the life of the
deceased.
No. 17 shows us our first example of the lotus column
with closed bud-capitals. The lotus and papyrus plants
were
favorite subjects for the ornamentation of the columns.
This
tomb belonged to Kheti, a ruler of the nome
under the
eleventh dynasty. He, as well as his father
(Baqet, No. 15),
has left us pictures of his life, his pleasures,
his military
campaigns, his possessions, etc.
The paintings in the tomb of Khnemhetep (No. 3) are
the most interesting. Over the door we see the statue of
the
deceased brought to the tomb, preceded by dancing-girls.
On
the left is a company of Semitic Bedouins bringing
an offering
to the governor. According to the usual
dragoman's story it is
the representation of the coming of
Joseph and his brethren to
Egypt, but this picture was in
existence several centuries
before the time of Abraham.
They are people from the northeast and are called
Aamu. We note that they are well, even richly dressed
and
supplied with all the property usual to the civilization
of
the period. They show no sign of inferiority to
the Egyptians.
With this in mind it is easier to understand
the important
wars waged with these people in the
sixth dynasty and the
invasion of Egypt by them soon after
the death of Khnemhetep.
It is quite within the
bounds of probability that the Hyksos,
the barbarian conquerors
of Egypt, belonged to the same race.
On the rear wall Khnemhetep is represented with his wife
in a boat hunting water-fowl. All kinds of birds are
flying
about, and in the river are fishes, crocodiles, and
a hippopotamus.
No. 2 belonged to Ameni-em-het, or, as he is usually
called, Ameni, and is perhaps the most famous of all these
tombs. It has four sixteen-edged columns. These are
exactly
like the Greek Doric in style and are called Proto-Doric.
They
have aroused great interest among architects
and artists, some
of whom have drawn the conclusion
that the Greeks got their
ideas from here. It is probably
merely a coincidence showing
that the same ideas came to
the Egyptian
craftsman of that time which came again to
his Greek brother
two thousand years afterward. History
repeats itself.
These four tombs are all that are usually visited. Several
of the others are interesting, especially No. 18, which
was left unfinished and so gives us a good idea of its
construction.
No. 28 was used as a church in the
Christian
period. I think the traveler usually sees enough
for one
visit in the first four and should not advise him to
visit the
others unless he has abundance of time.
We descend the hill to our donkeys. The pathway is
about twelve feet wide and looks like a road. In fact it is
the ancient way by which the sarcophagi were dragged up
the
hill. We shall see a better example of this at
Aswan.
At the landing-place we pass through the usual affecting
scene of saying farewell to our attendants. My boy is
fully ten years my senior and rather blacker than the
average
Egyptian fellah. He is very polite and
complimentary.
All the morning he has addressed me as
“abuya,”
which means “my father.” This flattery certainly
calls
for an extra piaster.
Two hours after leaving Benihasan we pass
Roda, a
large town with an important
sugar-factory belonging to
the Khedive. On the opposite bank
and a little inland are
the ruins of Antinopolis, a city
founded by Hadrian in
honor of his favorite, the handsome
Antinous. An oracle
predicted a great misfortune to the
Emperor, and the boy
drowned himself here in order to fulfil
the prediction and
prevent a worse disaster.
A century ago there was a ruined arch, a theater, and
the remains of other public buildings. These have now
entirely disappeared. To-day the place is interesting only
on
account of the remains of private houses and of the
streets of
the city. An Egyptian archaeologist encamped
here for a month
could find plenty of material for study
and examination. But
everything here is of the Roman
time, in which we are not so
much interested and which perhaps
can be better studied
elsewhere. The steamer does
not land here and we have to get
our information from
the guide-book.
According to the itinerary, the “Puritan” should tie up at
Roda for the night. But we are nearly
half a day ahead of
time and now expect to reach
Assiut to-morrow morning.
At Haggi Kandil, on the east bank, are the ruins of the
palace of Amenhotep IV and a series of interesting rock
tombs in the cliff beyond the plain. This is another place
where we ought to have an opportunity to land. I hope to
be able to do so on the return from
Aswan and therefore
shall reserve the
account of this king and his short-lived
capital until then.
We now come to the Gebel Abulfeda, another range of
steep cliffs on the east bank similar to the Gebel et-Ter.
The
wind sometimes blows down in such violent gusts
that this
mountain range has gained the profound respect
of the Nile
sailor. The traveler by dahabiyeh has an
anxious time and more
than one wreck has occurred here.
The sun is low in the west
and shines directly on the white
limestone. We do not usually
think of the Nile as a river
with mountains three thousand
feet high.
We are favored to-night by a most glorious sunset. The
sun goes down brilliant as ever. At first there is little
or
no color and no indication of the scene to follow.
Soon
the western sky shines in a bright and soft golden
light
fading toward the zenith. The few clouds become
bright
golden red, slowly changing to yellow. The blue sky
even
has a peculiar purple tint. As we look, the whole air
seems
filled with a
red and yellow light, and whichever way we
turn we see the
same brilliant light. In fact, the east
seems as filled with
it as the west, but the color is fainter
and the light thinner
and more diffused. Every sunset in
Egypt is worth watching,
though of course some are
more brilliant than others. Various
explanations of the
phenomena have been offered. The most
reasonable is
that the air is full of minute particles of
desert sand which
reflect the light of the sun below the
horizon, but still
shining across the earth.
We tie up for the night on the eastern shore, opposite
Monfalut. We have made unusually good
time and expect
to reach
Assiut about ten o'clock. This will enable
us to
do our sightseeing in
Assiut to-morrow
and proceed
southward early on Tuesday.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER VI
THE TEMPLE OF DENDERA
O
UR rais has the thought of
the drawbridge at Nag
Hamadi always before him. We wait only
for the
morning mail from
Cairo. This arrives shortly
after eight o'clock
and we start at once.
We have now been four days on the river and become
accustomed to some things which were at first interesting
novelties. We no longer rush to the side to see a shaduf,
a
native felucca, or a camel. The girl with the water-jar
on her
head has become commonplace. Some of the passengers
even go so
far as to say that they have had enough
of the river and wish
they had gone by train. But after two
more days our program of
temples and tombs will be so
full that they will be at any
rate kept busy. Others of us
find that the fact that we have
become familiar with many
of the Nile phenomena gives us time
to regard them
more carefully and to give attention to the
less obvious
and striking scenes. There is enough for those
who can
calmly absorb the beauties of the Nile and do not
expect
a
Karnak
every day.
We are now traversing the second section of the trip,
that from
Assiut to
Luxor. None of the country south of
Cairo can compare with the delta in
fertility or in agricultural
value. But this section is
perhaps the richest and
best cultivated. The butter and cheese
of Tahat and
Tema are famous throughout Egypt and the villages
look
prosperous.
Many of the houses are topped with pottery
jars used as nests
for pigeons. These are raised in large
numbers both for food
and for their manure, which is
highly valued. But they
probably consume more grain
from the fields than they are
really worth, so that it is a
mistake for the peasantry to
raise them, especially in such
numbers. The long donkey ride
from Baliana to
Abydos
carries the traveler through scenes of peasant life and
prosperity unequalled in the traveler's Egypt. But I am
anticipating, for we shall not make that excursion until
our
return journey.
We pass the flourishing town of Abutig, and then our
course lies eastward among some large islands. The river
skirts the barren and mountainous eastern shore. The
fertile
strip on the west widens and the railroad leaves the
river-bank, to reach it again at Maragha.
Shortly after lunch a small boat hails us and we learn
that the Niagara, a small steamer belonging to our
company,
has been aground near here for several days
and
that they hope for our assistance to pull her off.
A
wrecking-steamer has been working with her and got
her
in a favorable position, but more power is needed
to
release her.
The crew of the stranded vessel have had much the same
experience that would have fallen to their lot had they
met
with a smiliar misfortune on the shores of the
Red Sea.
There is no
large village or center of authority near. The
fellahin of the
neighborhood look on an accident of this
sort as something
which ought to bring them some advantage
either in the way of
plunder or of bakshish. So they
are not disposed to render any
assistance to the unfortunate
crew. The nearest town is
Tahta, several miles up
the river and then three miles inland. A messenger has
to go there
for provisions or to communicate with
Cairo.
This takes three men for a whole day.
Luckily the passengers
were taken off at once by a passing
steamer.
We get a line to her stern and then the “Puritan” and the
tug pull together. But the lines are so arranged that the
force exerted by one is neutralized by the other, and the
only result is to break the hawsers. Then both hawsers
are made fast to the bow and a strong pull together
results
indeed in another break. But something has been
accomplished
and the vessel has started. After that each
attempt
moves her more until finally she slides off the
bank
into deep water. Our men have worked hard and with
a
great deal of apparently unnecessary noise. We have
lost
three hours and must run late to-night in order to be
at
the bridge at the right time to-morrow. For to lose
the
bridge means the loss of half a day and would throw
our
program into confusion. There is no moon, but we
are
fortunate and finally tie up at eleven o'clock at
Menshieh.
Leaving before dawn we pass Girgeh before breakfast.
For a long time this was the terminus of the railroad and
one of the most important places in
Upper
Egypt. On
the east bank are interesting remains of a
temple of Ramses II.
For the past two or three years promising excavations,
under American auspices, have been carried on
here. Girgeh
used to be the usual starting-point for
Abydos.
This excursion is now made from Baliana
and usually
on the return voyage. I have noticed that
Girgeh
and Baliana form an important point in the climate
on the
river. Northward the nights are decidedly cold, and in
the
daytime the strong north wind sometimes reminds one
more of the temperate zones than of the tropics. Most
men who wear an overcoat in spring at home are glad to
have one here on the Nile. But south of that point the
climate is
much milder and the air is softer. We still have
north winds
and cool nights, but in a lesser degree. The
fact that the
sensitive dum palm is the prominent tree
henceforth bears
witness to the change in climate. North
of Baliana they are
but few, while south of that place they
outnumber all other
trees. There is another similar step
or line of climatic
demarcation at the
first cataract.
At last we arrive at the bridge at
Nag Hamadi at just the
right time and pass quickly
and safely through. A large
sugar-factory here gives
importance to the place. A short
distance farther on we come
to the holy city or village of
Hou. Here the holy saint Sheikh
Selim sat naked for fifty-three
years on the banks of the Nile
until his pious soul
was transported to the Muslim paradise.
His tomb and
memory are still reverenced by the devout native
sailors.
Our trip this afternoon is uneventful. We are all, however,
looking forward to the morrow, to our first visit to a
real Egyptian temple, the temple of Dendera. Just before
sunset we see the top of the roof and soon are moored at
the bank.
This is our first large temple. We have seen the obelisk
at
Heliopolis and know
that a temple once stood
there. So also at
Memphis a great temple of Ptah stood
behind the colossal statues. But there are no traces of
these
buildings left, and we saw there the obelisk and statues,
not
the building. It is true that we did visit the small
granite
temple near the
Sphinx. We admired its
huge
stones and perhaps casually heard that it was a
temple.
But it is so buried in the sand and so little
excavated that
we did not really appreciate it. Our Nile trip
has hitherto
been mostly river and tombs; therefore a change
is
quite welcome.
The temple of Dendera is of comparatively late date.
It is well
preserved and gives an excellent idea of the
structure of an
Egyptian temple. The journey from the
landing-place is short
and easy. So I consider it an excellent
temple for the tourist
to start with.
Our usual breakfast hour is half past eight. This is
changed to eight o'clock in order to allow an early start.
It would, however, be better in every
way to make it seven
o'clock, giving us more and better time
at the temple and
seriously inconveniencing no one. But at
nine we are
fairly started. The donkeys are good. Moreover,
the
party are getting accustomed to them and the
mounting
and start are becoming more orderly. The trouble
will
come as usual at the end of the trip, when a proper
reward
must be given to the attendant.
The ride is very easy, somewhat less than half an hour
and through the level and fertile country. I find that
considerable excavating has been done during the past year,
especially near the gateway. This is also evident by the
fact
that quite a large and good supply of “antikas” are
for sale
by the merchants. I secured a handful of well-preserved
copper
coins which are certainly genuine, as it
is easier and cheaper
to dig them than to counterfeit them.
We proceed down the narrow lane and then descend the
flight of steps to the Great Vestibule. The visitor should
spend a considerable time, say a quarter of an hour, in
silent
contemplation and in gaining an idea of this vast
hall with
its eighteen enormous Hathorheaded columns.
True, this is a
late temple and it is as nothing in comparison
with
Karnak and others before us. But to most
of us it is our first temple, and time should be given or
taken to get a proper impression of it. Hashim, the
dragoman, does not comprehend this. He has a certain
routine to go over, certain things to exhibit, and then
THE TEMPLE OF HATHOR AT DENDERA
wants to get
back to the “Puritan” as soon as possible.
Do not
misunderstand me. Hashim is an excellent dragoman.
He has had
many years' experience. He wants
to do his duty by his
passengers and to earn their approval
and good bakshish at the
end of the trip. But he does not
know that a party of
untrained tourists cannot understand
the various figures of
gods and kings as yet, and that it
is far better for them to
get an idea, picture, and impression
of the building as a
whole than to try to distinguish
the details. So he turns at
once to the right and begins to
point out the figures of the
kings, various gods, etc. The
whole temple, inside and
outside, is covered with reliefs
and inscriptions, and it is
not my province in this book
to attempt to draw attention to
them or to explain them.
The main thing to be seen here by the
tourist who has but
a couple of hours is that Great Hall.
Those Hathorheaded
columns are enough to remember the temple
by.
The picture of Newt, goddess of the sky, with her feet
in
one corner, long body and extended arms, is typical
and
impressive. One should descend to the crypts to see
the
reliefs there, which have been protected from
destroying
agents and are practically perfect. Then the
ascent to
the roof is easy and recommended. The Osiris
chamber
gives a good opportunity to learn of the myth of
Osiris.
From another of these chambers a famous zodiac
was
taken to the National Library at Paris. The roof
commands
an excellent view of the temple and of the
surrounding
country. With the plan as given in the
guidebook
one can get a good idea of the typical
Egyptian
temple. The sanctuary, the dark inner chamber
enclosed
on three sides, is the kernel of the structure.
Around it are
chambers, probably the living-rooms and
storerooms of the
priests. In front are two antechambers and
the hypostyle
hall, with
other rooms leading off from them. Then
comes the Great
Vestibule and beyond that the pylon.
This is the general
ground plan of all Egyptian temples.
On the outside of the rear wall is the famous relief of
Cleopatra with her son Ptolemy XVI Cæsar, son of Julius
Cæsar. There has been considerable controversy as to
whether these figures are to be considered as portraits or
merely as conventional figures representing these
worthies.
I am not personally qualified to judge, never
having seen
the originals. But I am inclined to think that if
these personages
ordered that they should be represented on
this
temple they would take care to have a real likeness,
not a
conventional figure.
Near this corner of the main temple is a small temple
of Isis. Farther along to the north was a large Coptic
church. The foundations are still there and the plan can
easily be traced out.
Then we come to the small temple called the Mamisi, or
Birth-House. Such small buildings outside the area of the
main sanctuary were common and indeed necessary to the
temples of the later period.
It contains representations of Hathor giving suck to the
infant Horus, and it is generally explained that it was
the
birth-house of the infant. The real facts are that
each of
these temples had a troop of women connected with
it
as priestesses and who devoted themselves to
religious
prostitution. At times when they were
ceremonially unclean
or when they were about to give birth to
a child,
they were removed to this building, so as not to
defile the
temple.
Two hours seem a very short time to give to this temple.
But Hashim seems to think that we have seen it and
is preparing to go. I also think that most of the party
have had all that they can absorb in one visit. It has
been
so new and strange to them that they cannot really
com¬prehend
it. It is unfortunate that we cannot have another
look at it on our return trip.
On arrival at the steamer the bakshish question again
obtrudes itself upon our notice. The Baedeker names one
piaster as the proper fee. This seems to me small and it
certainly is less than is customary. Two piasters ought to
be sufficient. It is more than any of these men would
ordinarily
earn in a half-day. But the gift of two piasters
from
a tourist will raise a howl that can neither be
imagined nor
described. The only safety lies in a stout
hippopotamus-hide
kurbatch carefully handled.
On the opposite side of the river is the large city of
Keneh. The trip to Dendera can be made from there by
the rail traveler, and during the season special trains are
arranged from Luxor. Keneh is famous for its kullal, or
porous water-jars. We have passed many vessels on the
river loaded with
them and bound to Cairo.
At the time of
the Mecca pilgrimage Keneh is the great
gathering-place
for the pious participants from Upper Egypt.
Until recently
they used to cross the desert to Kosseir on the
Red
Sea, five days' camel journey. Now they make the trip
by
rail via Cairo and Suez.
We next pass Barud, the river port of Kuft. This un¬important
village was in ancient times a very important
city. From here led the caravan routes to the Red Sea,
over which passed the merchandise from Punt, Arabia
and India. On this route lay the famous emerald mines
and the Wady Hammamat, where were quarried most of
the stones for sarcophagi. A little farther on we come to
Kus, once, according to Abulfeda, the second city in Egypt.
On the opposite bank, three miles farther south, we
come to
Naqada. A large tomb was
discovered here in
1897, and from articles found in it it was
thought to be that
of Mena, the first king of the first
dynasty. Afterward another
tomb was found at
Abydos with better evidence of
belonging to that king. So the tomb at
Naqada was assigned
to his queen
Newt-hetep, a daughter of the preceding
monarch, Sma. The
excavations in Nagada and
vicinity have yielded many treasures
to the museum and
much information to the Egyptologist.
We now approach
Luxor, ancient
Thebes. On the
western bank we see the Theban hills, with the tombs of
the
kings hidden in them, the temple of
Kurna, the Colossi,
and farther on the mass of Medinet
Habu.
Karnak,
though
near the river, is hidden by the trees and high
banks. But
from the upper deck we can discern the pylon
and the obelisks
and so get an idea of its position. Then
Luxor comes in sight ahead and in a few
minutes we are
fast to the bank. It is not quite sunset and we
have opportunity
for a stroll through the town, a visit to the
post-office
and hotels, or, better, to watch the glorious
Egyptian
sunset over the Theban hills.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER VII
KARNAK AND LUXOR
L
UXOR is unquestionably the
principal point on the
Nile for the sightseer. There are four
good hotels
for the visitor by rail and for those who wish
to
stay longer than the time permitted by the steamer.
An
English church and chaplain,
tennis-courts, golf-links,
sporting-clubs, a bar, a barber, and other necessaries of
civilized life are established here during the season.
The tourist steamers stop for three days on the upward
voyage, and usually for half a day on the return trip.
Their
program is usually to devote the first half of the
first day
to
Karnak,
and then two long half-days to the western side
of the river.
The Temple of
Luxor is slipped in
somewhere.
This is probably the best that can be done in
the
allotted time. The trouble is to see that the
dragoman
carries it out properly and does not hasten too
much or
leave out important things, out of consideration for
the
tired tourist or from his own disinclination to run
the risk
of overexertion. The heat can be easily avoided by
an
early start.
Immediately after breakfast we ascend the steep bank,
and the usual scene of mounting and fighting is gone
through with. But the boys have quite tamed down here, or
rather been tamed down by the efforts of the police. Moreover,
the donkeys are good, and in the season they have
no lack of
patronage. It is important to get a good donkey
for the first
trip and then to keep him for all the excursions
around
Luxor. I myself have always ridden the
same
Luxor donkey, “Pertinacity,” No. 86. His
owner, Isma'il,
confidently expects to graduate into a
dragoman next season
and I fear Pertinacity will soon have to
be replaced by
a younger beast. But he is an excellent animal
and
although I have known him for several years he still
brings
me in at the head of the procession.
Soon after leaving the village I come upon a lady in
trouble. She had dropped her purse which she carelessly,
after the wont of women, was carrying in her hand. Although
she saw it fall it had disappeared and now the
honor of
stealing it, or rather misappropriating it, lies
between three
boys, one of whom is her own donkey boy
and all of whom
vehemently protest their innocence.
However, the case is not
quite so difficult as it seems. I at
once order them to hold
up their hands and tell Isma'il to
search them. He knows just
where to look and in a
moment it is found and returned. I do
not care to see
who had it, as I am not there to administer a
reproof or
justice and I regard the owner as largely to blame.
Moreover
the boy did not intend to keep it, but expected
to
return it untouched upon offer of a bakshish. We
cannot
put our ideas of right and wrong into the native
mind.
We ride, or rather race, in a cloud of dust, and finally
arrive at the Temple of Khonsu. And here the dragoman
makes a bad error. There are really three important
temples, or rather groups of temples, at
Karnak,—the great
Temple of Ammon, the head of the Theban
triad, the Temple
of Khonsu, the son, and that of Mut, the
wife and
mother. Now it happens that the Temple of Khonsu
lies
on the road from
Luxor and it is therefore the easiest and
laziest thing
to stop there first. But this temple has nothing
to do with
the great
Temple of Ammon, and to stop
and
see it first is sure to give one a false and distorted
idea of
the whole place. At least, that was my own
experience,
and it was not until my third visit that I got
the matter
straightened out. Therefore, my advice is not to
stop at
the Temple of Khonsu, but to ride past it straight to
the
entrance of the
Temple
of Ammon and to the great pylon.
This pylon should
be ascended and the plan of the temple
worked out from there
with the aid of the map. In front
of us lies the avenue of
sphinxes. We can trace it to
the river-bank and far away on
the other side we can
see the Temple of Seti I at
Kurna, to which it led.
Turning toward the main temple, we see at our feet the
great
court. We must remember that the pylon on which
we stand dates
from the Ptolemies and that this great court
dates from the
twenty-second dynasty. We therefore see
how it swallowed up,
so to speak, the small Temple of Seti
II and partly enclosed
the larger one of Ramses III.
When these temples were built
they were far enough from
the main temple, and no one dreamed
that they would
later be found in the way.
Beyond the court lies the great hypostyle hall, then the
smaller pylons, and the two obelisks. We see the girdle
wall of the temple and get an idea of its vast area.
Beyond
this girdle wall on the left we see the foundations
of the
Temple of Mont, god of victory, and the granite portal
of
Ptolemy Philadelphus. We shall probably not get out
to
them.
To the right we see the Temple of Khonsu, looking quite
small and unimportant. Over the Temple of Ramses III
are more ruined pylons and the Sacred Lake.
Having completed our survey, we return to the great
court. This
is not a guide-book, therefore I shall not
weary my readers
with a minute description of the temple.
I must content myself
with merely recommending the plan
of your visit. And again I
would say that in a single visit
to a great Egyptian temple,
the ordinary visitor cannot
study the detail, but should
endeavor to get a large and
comprehensive idea of the whole.
To that end I have
advised passing by the Temple of Khonsu and
shall also
advise against visiting the small Temple of Seti II
or that
of Ramses III at this time. For these buildings are
not
in any sense part of the
Temple of Ammon, and to see them
now
merely confuses the tourist. They can be examined
at the end
of the morning, or, better still, on a second
visit.
We now enter the great hypostyle hall. As in the vestibule
at Dendera, the visitor must spend some time in silent
contemplation. This one hall has an area of five thousand
four hundred and fifty square yards and, according to
Baedeker, could accommodate the whole church of Notre
Dame at Paris. Each of the twelve columns in the central
rows is as large as Trajan's Column at Rome or the
column in the Place Vendome at Paris. They are not of
one piece, but are built up out of semi-drums. Looking
closely at them we see in the absolute lack of proper
foundations the cause of the instability of the Egyptian
temple. True, the wonderful climate of Egypt has permitted
the stone to last for centuries. The real damage
to the buildings has been caused by earthquakes. The
enormous mass of débris in the hall has done much to
support
and preserve the columns and also the entire
building.
This is now being cleared away and it is to be
hoped that
its absence will not be lamented when the next
serious
earthquake occurs.
THE GREAT HALL AT KARNAK
On the outside walls of the great hall are the historical
reliefs commemorating the victories of Seti I and Ramses
II in Palestine. Of course we cannot read the hieroglyphic
accounts, but scholars have done so for us and we can
at least see the pictorial illustrations. The king in his
chariot is the prominent figure. Equally prominent,
though not equally happy, are the enemy, represented
mostly by corpses and bound prisoners. The gods of the
Theban triad, Ammon, Mut, and Khonsu, are represented
protecting the king and delivering the conquered nations
to him. On the south end of the second pylon we have
the Triumphal Monument of Sheshenq I, the Shishak of
the Bible. It commemorates his victory over Rehoboam,
the son of King Solomon. The great god Ammon, with the
crown of Upper and
Lower
Egypt on his head, holds his
sword in his right
hand, while his left holds five cords, each
fastened to a row
of captured cities. Beneath Ammon is
the goddess of the Theban
nome, also with five rows of
captured cities. To the right is
the unfinished figure of
Sheshenq, grasping a bunch of enemies
“by the hairs of
their heads,” as the dragoman says. Farther
along on
the south wall are representations of Ramses II
fighting
against the Hittites. On the projecting wall is a
most interesting
and important inscription, containing the
text of
the treaty of peace which Ramses II made with the
Hittites in the twenty-first year of his reign. Still
farther
to the east we have a copy of the epic poem of
Penta-ur.
Returning to the great hall and passing through the third
pylon we come to the central court with the obelisk of
Thuthmes I. There were originally four obelisks here and
when they were erected they stood at the entrance to the
temple. We must remember that we are continually going
back toward the original kernel of the temple, the temple
of the Middle
Empire in the open space back of the sanctuary.
Passing through the fourth pylon, we come to the first
colonnade, a mass of ruin. But the great obelisk of
Makere, Queen Hatasu, still stands proudly among the
fragments of the stone columns and of its companion
obelisk. It is the tallest and handsomest obelisk in
Egypt.
According to the inscriptions, it was quarried,
brought
from
Aswan,
and erected in seven months.
Farther on in the fore court of the Sanctuary we see
the two famous pillars erected by Thuthmes III. One
bears
the open lotus-flower, the lily of
Upper
Egypt, the
other has the papyrus of
Lower Egypt. The sanctuary
itself is
of late date and is now a mass of ruin.
Behind the sanctuary are the remains of the temple of
the Middle Empire, the beginning of the great temple.
We began our survey at
Karnak
at the first pylon and
worked eastward. Historically, we
should begin here and
picture to ourselves this first temple
4500 years ago. The
great temple grew from here, and by a
careful study of the
plan we can see it in its successive
stages of growth, imagine
it in its time of full splendor
(1200 to 600
B.C.), then
in its decay. Used as a Christian church in the fifth century,
it was abandoned after the Muslim conquest of
Egypt and now for a thousand years has been an empty
ruin.
Luckily the Muslim capitals, Fostat and the later
Cairo were too far away to claim its
stones for their new
buildings. They had a supply nearer at
hand, the ruins of
ancient
Memphis.
East of this temple of the Middle Empire we come to
the Great Festal Temple of Thuthmes III. This is quite
well
preserved and has even the roof still in its proper
place.
There are numerous traces of its use as a Christian
church. The
old heathen figures were whitewashed over
and crude pictures
of Christ and Christian saints painted
in their stead.
It may be interesting to learn that this whole temple,
from the second pylon to the rear of the girdle wall of
Ramses
II, could be placed in half the ground on which
the
Great Pyramid is built.
We have now been systematically through the temple
and some of us are rather tired. For it is about a quarter
of
a mile from the first pylon to where we are now standing
and
necessary détours have multiplied this several times.
Then we
have been standing or slowly walking for two
hours, which is
enough to tire the ordinary tourist. Much
has been left
unseen, but the great
Temple of Ammon
has
been quite well covered for a first visit. We leave
the
temple by the breach in the girdle wall of Ramses II
and
pass by the Sacred Lake. A gang of children are at
work
excavating, apparently toiling hard for a pittance of
three
or four piasters a day. This fact awakens some
pity
among the visitors from America. But these children
are
happy and the competition for an opportunity to work
at
the excavations is ample proof that the place is
much
sought after.
The pylons and buildings to the south were never finished
and are now so in ruins that we can only name them
and pass on. Mounting our donkeys we ride through the
eastern avenue of sphinxes to the temple of Mut, the
consort
of Ammon. This was once a temple of
considerable
size and filled with statues. It had its own
sacred lake,
which remains to-day; but the traces of the
temple are
scanty and it is only possible to trace the ground
plan.
It is not even necessary to dismount.
There are three important temples which I have purposely
omitted. I
have done this because they do not belong
to the great
Temple of Ammon, which I wished the
party to see, without confusing it with anything else. The
main temple is enough, and more than enough, for one
visit. But I shall add a few words here about these
others.
The Temple of Khonsu is a small but complete and
typical structure. Khonsu was the third in the Theban
triad.
We enter by the gateway between the towers of
the large pylon
and find ourselves in the Great Court.
It has twenty-eight
papyrus columns with bud-capitals.
There is an interesting
relief of the façade of the temple
with the flags flying above
the pylon. The hypostyle hall
has four papyrus columns with
calyx capitals in the center
and two columns with bud-capitals
on each side. Passing
on we come to the sanctuary, which is
peculiar in being
open at both ends. The ascent to the roof is
worth while
for the sake of the view of
Karnak.
Adjoining the west wall is a small temple to Osiris. The
ghaffir seems to think that he is doing quite a favor to
admit
the visitor and that it deserves recognition in the
shape of
bakshish.
In the great court of the
Temple of
Ammon are the temples
of Seti II and of Ramses III.
The former has three
chapels, dedicated to the three members
of the triad. The
latter is a fair-sized temple and one of the
few built by one
pharaoh and on a single homogeneous plan. As
I have
already mentioned, it was originally outside of the
great
temple, which later advanced and incorporated it in
the
walls of its great court. The open court, with its
Osiris
columns, attracts our attention. It is very well
preserved
and is our first example of this kind of column.
The rest
contains nothing of unusual interest. Only yesterday
we
saw our first
temple and wanted to see every figure and
every room. To-day
we have seen so much temple that
we are content and even
anxious to pass by a great deal
and see only the principal
things. This is not surprising
when one reflects that there
are at least sixteen distinct
temples at
Karnak, most of which I have not even mentioned.
Besides these are innumerable gateways, chapels,
pylons, columns, etc. I have now been many times to
Karnak, but feel that I have merely begun
to see it. It
would require several consecutive days to get a
fair idea
of this great city of temples. And yet this is only
one of
several temple-cities of ancient
Thebes.
The Temple of
Luxor suffers
to-day from its position.
When one has just seen
Karnak a mere ordinary temple
cannot be appreciated. Then it is so near, right at the
top of the bank. It can be visited at any time and
consequently
is often not visited at all.
It is announced that the official visit to the Temple of
Luxor will be made at four o'clock. The
time till then
is open for rest or purchases from the
antiquity-dealers
in
Luxor. Now I have never been able fully to comprehend
what germ or microbe it is that impels the tourist to
support
the
Luxor forger of antiquities. For it
is a well-known
fact that most of the antiquities
industriously offered
and even forced on the tourist are plain
forgeries
made here during the last summer. And yet the
business
prospers. Of course the genuine antiquities have
a fictitious
value put upon them by this craze for
something
antique. A few years ago a genuine scarab could
be
bought for a trifle. It did not pay to fabricate
them.
The demand has exhausted the supply and a good
scarab
now commands from one to twenty pounds. False
ones
abound and are sold for what they will bring.
But there is one dealer in
Luxor whom I believe to be
absolutely honest. He is
also, perhaps, the best authority
on Egyptian antiquities in
the world. I refer to Muhammad
Muhassib. Much have I learned
from him, both
about antiquities and about life in
Luxor and Egypt during
the last half-century. In his early life he explored the hills
on the western shore and discovered and robbed many a
tomb.
This was his profession, and under the form of
government in
vogue in those days every man had to be
more or less of a
rascal. He made a pilgrimage to Mecca,
earned the title of
Hajji, and reformed. Many of the
treasures now in the British
and
Cairo museums passed
through his hands, and his shop and the museum salesroom
in
Cairo are, in my opinion, the only
places where a
purchaser may be sure that he is getting a
genuine article.
The old gentleman has such a horror of
forgeries that he
will not allow one on his premises.
At the appointed time a small portion of the company
gather to visit the temple under the guidance of Hashim.
For in addition to the usual distractions of
Luxor the annual
sports are being held at the
race-track. There is an opportunity
to see a three-legged
race, a camel race, a donkey
race, and even to ride your own
particular donkey in a race
and perhaps win a prize. This is a
powerful counter attraction
to a mere Egyptian temple three
thousand three
hundred years old. Some of us have become
surfeited
with temples in the last thirty-six hours. It
is, however,
a very large and important structure. The views
of it
from various points outside and the two large courts
and
the colonnade from within are very fine. The
sanctuary
with its adjoining chambers, the hypostyle hall,
and
the central court were built by Amenhotep III (1400
B.C.). He also planned a great hypostyle
hall, of which
he only
succeeded in completing the two center rows of
columns. These
remain to-day as the Colonnade. Then
Ramses II desired to add
to the temple and to his own
fame. So he built a large
colonnaded court, which he
adorned with statues of himself and
family. He also built
the massive pylon and set up the two
obelisks. But
in the original plan of the temple there was no
thought of
this extension court, and the course of the river
made it
necessary to bend the axis to the east. This was
also
desirable on account of the avenue of sphinxes which
was
to lead hence to the Temple of Khonsu at
Karnak, and
could not
otherwise be run in a straight line.
In the southwest corner of that fore court is a very interesting
relief of a festal procession to the temple. The
princes and nobles with their attendants, the animals for
sacrifice adorned with garlands and the priests go in line
to the great pylon. In front of the pylon are the two
obelisks and three huge statues for each tower. The flags
are flying from the lofty standards, and the whole gives
an
excellent picture of the festival in ancient
Thebes.
Only one of the obelisks remains, the other having been
taken to Paris, where it now adorns the Place de la
Concorde.
Part of the fore court, containing several
pillars
and an unknown number of valuable statues, is
still buried
in rubbish. There is small chance of its being
excavated,
for a holy mosque, containing the holy tomb of
a very
holy saint, Abu-1 Haggag by name, has been built in
this
part of the temple. As long at the Muslim religion
prevails
in
Luxor
it will be difficult and probably impossible
to disturb his
rest.
During the Christian period a small chamber back of
the hypostyle hall was made into a Christian church. An
altar
was set up, the heathen reliefs whitewashed over, and
two granite
Corinthian columns set up. Near this room
is a small chamber
with representations of the birth and
bringing-up of Amenhotep
III. I saw a party of five
English ladies and gentlemen come
into this room, accompanied
by their dragoman. The latter
explained in fairly
good English that it was the “birt” room
of Amenhotep
III. One of the party at once understood and
explained
to the rest that it was the “burnt” room of
Amenhotep III,
the room where he was burned to death, and that
that was
plainly the subject of the reliefs. All listened with
attention
and approval. The dragoman knew that they had
misunderstood him, but was powerless to interfere or
rectify
the error.
[Back to top]
A
CCORDING to the steamer's
program, all the
sights on the western side of the river from
the
Biban el Muluk to Medinet Habu are to be
visited
in one day. This necessitates taking a lunch to be
eaten
at the
Tombs of the
Kings. It also makes such a long and
hard day that
most travelers become so fatigued that they
entirely fail to
appreciate Medinet Habu, a most interesting
temple, or rather
group of temples. Upon consultation
with Hashim, therefore, I
arrange that the excursion shall
be divided into two days,
returning to the steamer for a
late luncheon.
Out of respect to the expected heat breakfast is served
an hour earlier than usual, and half past eight finds the
party landed on the western shore. Two hours earlier
would be much better, for the sun is no respecter of
persons
and those who come to see Egypt ought to
accommodate
themselves to the special conditions of each
trip.
The donkeys and their attendants have crossed in the
native ferry-boat and are awaiting us. The party are now
quite expert in mounting, and moreover most of them have
ordered the donkeys which they had yesterday. So there
is no
delay. We ride across the sand and along a high
dyke which we
finally leave and dismount at the Temple of
Seti I at
Kurna.
Several enterprising natives have established themselves
here to prey
upon the tourist. Pieces of mummies,
human and animal, beads,
scarabs and ushabti figures are
displayed in profusion. All
are genuine, and if required
the vendor will give his
“personal guarantee.” I remember
that last year some credulous
ones bought some warranted
ushabti figures and on their return
to the steamer
put them to soak in the wash-basin. After
luncheon they
found a mass of Nile mud at the bottom and some
blue
paint floating on top. In reality, the pieces of
mummies,
the mummy cloth and the small blue or green
mummy
beads are probably genuine, as they are plentiful
and
there is no need of fabricating them. The other
objects
are surely forgeries. The traveler may be certain
that
anything genuine and valuable is offered to the
residents
and dealers in
Luxor and not to the tourist.
This Temple of Seti I at
Kurna
is a mortuary temple.
That is, it is the temple connected with
his tomb in the
Biban el Muluk which we are soon to see. It
had its staff
of priests who were to see that his Ka was
properly fed and
cared for and was the place for ceremonies in
his remembrance
and honor. It was really the funeral-chamber
of
the tomb. Most of it has fallen into ruin and a
great
deal has entirely disappeared. We look over
toward
Karnak and recall that an avenue of
sphinxes led from
here to the river-bank, opposite that
temple.
We mount our donkeys at the back of the temple and
ride toward the mountains. There is now a good road
and this
year carriages have made the trip for the first
time. As we
proceed up the valley we realize that it is
a most appropriate
place for a cemetery. There is absolutely
nothing growing and
it seems as though animal life
could not exist here. To be
sure there are equally or more
desolate places in the world.
But we have just left the
fertile and
green valley of the Nile. In a very few minutes
we find
ourselves surrounded by this burning and
barren waste of sand
and rock. Doubtless the suddenness
of the change has increased
the effect.
The path winds up the valley and we appear to be approaching
a
cul-de-sac with a steep
rock cliff directly in front
of us. Something seems to tell us
that that is the valley of
the
tombs of the kings. We find a barrier across the road
and are obliged to show our monument tickets. Some
years ago the price of these tickets was increased twenty
piasters. Part of the money thus obtained was used to
install electric lights in the principal tombs. This
greatly
adds to the pleasure and comfort of the visitor
and prevents
the disfigurement and gradual destruction of
the
paintings by candles or magnesium. Six of the more
important tombs are thus illuminated. The others are
open only to those armed with special permission.
We go first to No. 6, the tomb of Ramses IX. He was
a ruler of comparatively small importance of the twentieth
dynasty. Professor Petrie calls him Ramses X, for he thinks
he
has found another Ramses to take the number IX.
The general plan of all these royal tombs is the same.
They differ only in extent and in beauty of workmanship.
This is one of the later ones and not one of the finest.
We
descend the flight of steps and enter a long, gradually
descending
hall or corridor. At the entrance are two
small
undecorated chambers on each side. We pass through
two
large halls, then another corridor, and finally reach
the
last chamber, in which the sarcophagus once stood.
We must remember that we have here only the shaft and
the sarcophagus pit; that is, only the portion of the tomb
belonging to the soul and the mummy. The funeral-chamber,
the
meeting-place for the friends and the dwelling
place of the
Ka, was the temple down in the plain. That
was the appropriate
place for the record of the deeds of
the deceased.
The pyramid tombs of the early kings had no sculptures
or hieroglyphic records except stelae, and the pyramid
temple was also bare. The tombs of the nobility at
Saqqara,
as we have seen,
had the public rooms profusely
adorned, but the shaft and the
sarcophagus-chamber were
usually uninscribed. In the time of
the sixth dynasty a
portion of the Book of the Dead was
sometimes inscribed
on the wall. Here was an opportunity for
the king to provide
his soul with a written and pictorial
account of its
journey after death. He could prepare an
illustrated
guide-book, so to speak, in order that the
soul could
always know where he was and the proper charm or
magic word to use on each occasion.
During the day the soul was in no danger. But in
the night, in the twelve hours of darkness, it accompanied
the
sun on his journey in the lower world. This
underworld was
divided into twelve rooms, each corresponding
to an hour. Each
doorway was guarded by
two gigantic serpents and the soul had
to have the proper
password in order to enter. The whole
journey was beset
by demons, serpents, and spirits both good
and evil. Finally
the sun and the soul reappear again in the
world of
light. On the whole it is a gloomy picture and in
this
particular case does not merit especial attention
because
of excellence of work. An interesting picture is
that showing
the five ages of man—the infant, youth, young
man,
mature man, and decrepit old age. Later pictures
have
seven ages instead of five.
We go next to No. 8, the tomb of Merenptah. He was
the son and immediate successor of Ramses II, called the
Great.
According to some scholars he was the pharaoh
of the Exodus
and his body was engulfed in the
Red
Sea.
But it is now in the
Cairo Museum, having been found
with
other royal mummies in tomb No. 35. The general
subjects of
decoration are similar to those in the tomb
just described.
The sarcophagus is still in its proper
place.
Tomb No. 9 belonged to Ramses VI. His predecessor,
Ramses V, began it, but had not done much when death
carried
him off. It is fully inscribed and contains the
whole of the
Book of Hades, the Book of Duat, the Destruction
of Mankind,
part of the Book of Caverns, and
chapters 125 to 127 of the
Book of the Dead. In the
sarcophagus-chamber are interesting
astronomical representations.
At one place the boat of the Sun
is drawn
across the heavens and then down an incline. The
Arabs
have named this “
Shellal,” or cataract. This tomb is
comparatively
unimportant and uninteresting. Our time
could be more
profitably spent on some of the others.
We now go right up to the cliff to No. 35. This is the
tomb of Amenhotep II, son of Thuthmes III. It is one
of the most difficult tombs to enter. We descend a rough
and steep flight of steps and soon come to a deep pit.
This
was designed to block the entrance and to lead the
grave-robber
to think that nothing lay beyond. It is
bridged over
and we proceed. At last we come to the
sarcophagus-chamber
where we find the mummy of the king in
his
coffin and still adorned with the funeral garlands.
An
electric light is placed at his head and the body of
the once
great king is thus placed on exhibition before
tourists and
strangers from lands of which he never dreamed. I
fear
if he could have foreseen this desecration he would
have
preferred to turn to dust at once. Still it is very
interesting
to the
visitor to see his body exactly as it was placed
here in 1423
B.C.There are two small chambers in each wall. In one of
those on the right were found nine royal mummies, including
those of his son Thuthmes IV, his grandson
Amenhotep III,
Merenptah, Seti II also known as Seti
Merenptah, Siptah,
Ramses IV, V, and VI. The tomb
of the first of these
personages has lately been found and
has yielded rich spoils
for the museum. Amenhotep III
had his own tomb in the west
valley (No. 23) and the
others all had their own eternal
homes. They were evidently
all brought here for safety
probably in the time
of the twentieth dynasty.
In the other chamber in the right wall are three mummies,
apparently unnamed and unimportant. Rumor in
Luxor says that one of them is the mummy
of Queen
Hatasu and that in due time official announcement
thereof
will be made.
The subjects of the decorations are similar to those of
the other tombs but the work is much finer than in those
we have visited. This tomb is perhaps the most impressive
in the whole valley, probably on account of the presence
of the mummy of the king and of its location deep in
the perpendicular cliff.
We return to the main road and come to No. II, the
tomb of Ramses III. This king was one of the great temple-builders.
He had a long reign and he had plenty of
time to construct an elaborate tomb. Tomb No. 3 was
originally
intended for him, while No. II belonged to his
father
Setnekht. But after his death Ramses took possession
of No. II
and placed Setnekht in No. 14, which
had belonged to his uncle
and aunt, Siptah and Tausert.
This tomb is named after Bruce its discoverer, and is
also
sometimes called the Harper's Tomb on account of
the musicians
represented in the last side chamber on the
left of the second
corridor. It has its own style both of
architecture and of
representations. Instead of being a
straight sloping shaft, it
has several side chambers and
also continues beyond the
sarcophagus-chamber. When
the excavators had reached the third
corridor it was found
that they were going to run into tomb
No. 10, so they
stopped and moved a few feet to the right to
avoid it. The
corridors contain the usual representations for
the benefit
and guidance of the soul. But the side chambers
contain
pictures of the daily life of the period and
similar to those
in the funeral-chambers at
Saqqara and Benihasan. For
instance,
one room has domestic scenes, such as baking,
slaughtering of
animals, cooking; another might be called
the armory, for it
is filled with pictures of arms and standards.
Another is
called the treasury, as it is adorned with
vases, jars,
bottles, elephants' tusks, and furniture of various
kinds.
Room No. 9, as already mentioned, has two
harpers, each before
two gods, singing, “Receive the
blessed king Ramses.”
Unfortunately, this tomb was lately flooded by an
unusually violent storm and all the painting beyond the
third
corridor destroyed. The sarcophagus was brought
to the Louvre
many years ago. The mummy was one of
those found at Der
el-Bahri and is now in the
Cairo Museum.
Tomb No. 16 belonged to Ramses I. It has the usual
religious scenes and is especially rich in snakes and demons.
The red granite sarcophagus still remains in its
place. I
advise the omission of this tomb, for it is not of
special
interest, and our next, No. 17, is the finest of all and
requires considerable exertion, both mental and physical.
It is well to
reserve the tomb of the great Seti for the last.
I must advise
a short rest and gathering together of the
forces of mind and
body before entering it. It is no light
task to visit six
royal tombs in two hours, descending each
time some hundreds
of feet into the earth and scrambling
up and down the rough
limestone slopes and steps.
No. 17, the tomb of Seti I, was discovered by Belzoni in
1817, and is therefore known as Belzoni's tomb. It is
the largest and finest of all the royal tombs, but is
surpassed
in size by some private tombs of the succeeding
dynasties.
The subjects are as usual, namely the journey
of the soul
and the sun in the lower world. Parts of the books
called
the “Praising of Ra,” the “Book of that which is in
the
Underworld” and the “Book of the Portals” are given
in
hieroglyphics and also in picture scenes. We cannot
study and examine them in detail. But we can admire the
beauty of the work. The drawing and coloring are
unsurpassed.
Baedeker conjectures that the work was done
by
the same artists who decorated this king's temple at
Abydos.
What is the general impression of the tombs of the
kings? They are highly praised both by ancient and
modern
writers. They are undoubtedly extremely interesting
both as
the burial-places of great men and as works
of art and
architecture. But they cannot be called stupendous
or looked
upon as monuments involving great
expenditure of work, skill,
time, or money. The limestone
rock was not difficult to
excavate. There is no difficult
carving or sculpture-work.
Much of the decoration is
painting on plaster and could be
rapidly done by skilled
workmen. The subjects are all very
much the same,
and they do not have the variety or the
interest which is
found in the tombs of
Saqqara or in the private tombs
of the same
period at Sheikh Abd el-
Kurna. But in
estimating them we must include the tomb-temples in the
plain which have often entirely vanished. There belong
the illustrations of the glorious life of the king, and
here
we have only a part of his tomb or “eternal
house.”
When complete they were undoubtedly among the
most
interesting monuments of ancient Egypt, though
perhaps
not to be put in the same class with the great
pyramids
or a temple-city such as
Karnak.
Two ways are open for our return to the plain. The
easier and, I regret to say, the one chosen by the majority,
is to ride back the way we came, skirting the base
of the
mountain and reaching Der el-Bahri after half an
hour's ride.
The better way is to walk over the mountain
by the steep path
beginning near tomb No. 16. A little
steady work brings us to
the top, whence we have an interesting
view of the desolate
valley. Then along the ridge
for a few minutes and we come to
the other side of the
mountain, where we find one of the
finest views in the Nile
land. At our feet is the terrace
temple of Queen Hatasu,
Der el-Bahri. At the mouth of the
valley is the mighty
ruin of the
Ramesseum and then the broad and green
fertile country, the Nile, the eastern bank, and the African
mountains. We can pick out
Karnak,
Luxor,
Kurna, the
Ramesseum, Medinet Habu—in short, all the
famous
buildings and remains of ancient
Thebes.
At the foot of the hill we find the rest house belonging to
the
Luxor Hotel and
open only to visitors from that hotel
or from Messrs. Cook's
steamers. The attendants are,
however, obliging and willing to
serve liquid refreshments,
as far as their supplies permit, to
all comers.
I consider it a mistake to visit Der el-Bahri at this time
of the day, for the sun shines directly upon the terraces.
Either the
early morning, when the sun has not yet reached
its power and
shines directly into the corridors, or late in
the afternoon,
when the whole temple is in the shade,
would be better. I
would prefer to visit some of the private
tombs and to take
Der el-Bahri with the other temples
to-morrow. Or if one
prefers not to have the tombs
all in one morning, the
Ramesseum is equally on our way
and not so open to the above objections. But it has been
included in the program for this morning and so we must
make a hurried and, I fear, unsatisfactory visit.
The terrace temple of Der er-Bahri is unique. Three
courts or terraces rise one above the other. The upper
and
last one is right at the base of the cliff. An inclined
road
runs through the centre, dividing each terrace. At
the back of
each court was a platform with a covered colonnade
adorned
with paintings.
The name “der” means convent. In the early Christian
centuries a community of monks took possession of the
then
half-ruined buildings. As there were similar religious
fraternities in the temples to the south, this one was called
Der el-Bahri or the northern convent.
Queen Hatasu, the builder of the temple, was a remarkable
woman and had a remarkable career. To understand
her position we must examine her family history.
Her father, Thuthmes I, was not of royal blood, but
derived
his title to the throne from Hatasu's mother,
Queen
Aahmes. His son, Thuthmes II, was not born of a wife
of
noble blood and therefore had no right to the
throne.
There were two sons and another daughter of
Queen
Aahmes, but they died young. So on the death of
Queen
Aahmes, Hatasu was the only member of the royal
family
of royal blood, of the blood of Seqenenra and
Aahmes, the
conquerors of the hated foreign rulers, the
Hyksos. Thuthmes
I lost his
claim to the throne which legally descended
to his daughter.
The conservative nobles were great sticklers
for the
legitimate succession, and to appease them he
associated his
daughter Hatasu with him on the throne
and married her to her
half-brother Thuthmes II. Soon
afterwards he died. Thuthmes II
was weak mentally and
physically. He does not seem to have
taken part or much
interest in the wars or in the building of
his reign. At his
death, after a short reign of thirteen
years, Hatasu was
again alone on the throne. The Egyptians had
no objections
to being ruled by a woman, but she thought best
to
associate her nephew Thuthmes III with her as
co-regent.
The exact position of Thuthmes III in the
family is not
quite certain. His mother was not of royal
blood, but his
father was at least of the royal family and
either Thuthmes
I or Thuthmes II. If the former, he was a
half-brother of
Hatasu; if the latter, he was a sort of
step-nephew, that is,
the son of her husband by another
co-wife. Professor
Petrie favors the last opinion. The
solution of the question
is not especially important for us,
but we should remember
that Hatasu was always the chief ruler
during
their joint reign and that Thuthmes chafed under
her
ascendency and hated her for it. After her death he
took
a wicked pleasure in removing her name and her
figure
from the walls of this temple as well as from other
buildings
founded or added to by her. At the death of
Thuthmes
II she was thirty-seven years old and had reigned
for
thirteen years. Her nephew was a mere boy, perhaps,
according
to Professor Petrie, nine years old. It would
not
be natural or proper for her to surrender the power to
him,
and she did all she could be expected to do in
securing him
the succession by making him co-ruler and
marrying him
to her daughter, Hatasu II. On the other hand, it
was not
unnatural for
the young man, especially as he grew older,
to feel a desire
for a larger share of power and glory. After
a total reign of
thirty-five years, twenty-one of them
with her nephew, the
great queen Hatasu died and left
Thuthmes III free to
inaugurate the most glorious reign
in the history of Egypt. A
certain deserved retribution
befell him later when, long after
his death, Ramses II
erased his name from his buildings and
monuments in
order to steal additional and unearned glory for
himself.
The temple of Der el-Bahri was excavated some ten
years ago by the Egyptian Exploration Fund. The colonnades
were roofed in to protect the reliefs, and considerable
other
restoration work was done.
The lower court is almost entirely destroyed. It seems
to have been a garden for there are remains of palms and
vases. There are faint reliefs showing the transportation
of an obelisk from
Aswan and its erection and dedication.
The central court is much larger. We find here, under
the south colonnade, the representation of the famous expedition
to Punt. The land of Punt was beyond the Red
Sea, probably what is now known as the Somali coast.
The
journey thither and return took three years. It was a
great
undertaking and was regarded very much as a voyage
to India or
China two centuries ago. The expedition was
a complete success
and brought back a valuable cargo of
frankincense, gold,
ebony, cosmetics, and electrum. The
queen considered it worthy
to adorn her new temple.
The reliefs are much damaged but can
still be picked
out.
At the north end of the wall is the great god Ammon Ra,
with the queen adoring him and offering the spoils of the
expedition. The figure of Hatasu has been partly chipped
out. Then comes the boat of the god, with Thuthmes III
worshipping
it. Behind are heaps of the produce of Punt.
The gods Horus,
Thout and Sefkhet-ebui are looking after
the weighing.
Following this is another mutilated figure
of the queen with
her Ka behind her. The ships are embarking
the goods in Punt
and the water over which they
are to sail is represented with
various kinds of fish swimming
about. These are remarkably
well drawn and remind
one of the similar scenes in Assyrian
reliefs in the
British Museum.
On the end wall the Egyptian commander is received
by the king of Punt with his family and attendants. The
native
village is depicted with its houses built on piles and
reached
by ladders. In the upper corner the captain is
looking over
his gifts.
This whole series of representations is very interesting
and has yielded a great deal of information to Egyptologists.
The northern section of this court is known as the Birth
Colonnade, from its pictures referring to the birth of the
queen.
A whole morning could be easily and profitably devoted
to this temple. This, however, is beyond the power of the
ordinary tourist. The dragoman is tired, most of the
party are also tired, and the irritation engendered by a
hard morning's work shows itself more or less in all of
us.
Some have not come to the temple at all, and others
are
having difficulty to conceal their desire to get back
to the
steamer to lunch and comparative coolness. Hashim is
more than willing to accommodate them. So after a hasty
look at the upper terrace we return to the entrance where
our donkeys and boys are awaiting us.
I must not omit the altar dedicated by Hatasu to Ra
Harmakhis, the sun-god. This is one of the few altars still
standing in
an Egyptian temple. I do not know for what
reason it escaped
the Christian iconoclasts; perhaps it
was covered with rubbish
or the monks found it useful and
spared it.
Were it not for the Punt expedition and this altar, I
would recommend the “hurried” traveler not to enter, but
to
enjoy and fix in his mind the picture of the temple as it
stands, with its terraces and the mighty and sombre cliff
behind it. As it is, I think it quite necessary to see these
two things and to spend the bulk of one's time on them.
We ride past the
Ramesseum,
leaving it for to-morrow.
A brief halt is made at the
Colossi of Memnon. There is
no need to dismount, for we can ride around them and see
everything. A native climbs part way up on one of them
and
makes what he considers delightful music on a kind
of pipe. He
then, of course, demands bakshish. Few
give, but as travelers
never have less than half a piaster,
and would in any case be
ashamed to give less, he gets a
good day's wages from a few
persons.
Here occurred an amusing incident showing the quick-wittedness
and native unashamed impudence of the donkey
boy. One of them came up to me and said in good
English,
“You insulted me last night, but I have forgiven
you.” I
replied, “Probably I did not know you or I would
have been
more careful.” “O, yes, you did. You said in
plain Arabic 'Get
out of the way, Abdul Muhammed!'
You knew me and called me by
name. But I will forgive
you this time, if it doesn't happen
again.”
I think it was the same boy who was the hero of the following
tale. I was riding from
Luxor to
Karnak two or
three years ago and overtook a lady with a diminutive boy
running beside her. She had been teaching him an English
song. Suddenly she said, “You must give me a bakshish
for this.”
“Oh, yes, of course. I will give you a check.”
Then feeling in
his pocket: “But you must excuse me till I
get to the hotel. I
have left my check-book in my room.”
Where the urchin had ever
heard the words “check” and
“check-book” is beyond my
knowledge. Perhaps it was
at the mission-school.
We have had a hard morning. How can the entire program
of sightseeing on the west bank be accomplished in
one day as given in the steamer's program! It cannot be
satisfactorily or comfortably done. A party can probably
cover the ground and at least go to all the places between
sunrise and sunset, but there is very little pleasure or
instruction
in the last part of the trip. It is
certainly
better to take two long mornings.
We get back to the “Puritan” in time for a late luncheon.
Then the afternoon is at our disposal. I believe that one
can get too much temple and be surfeited with antiquities
if taken in too large doses. Otherwise I should advise
another trip to
Karnak, for we have had to leave there a
great deal
untouched and unseen. But we have a great
temple right at the
top of the bank, the Temple of
Luxor,
and if one still has a craving for temples it can best be
satisfied there.
At sundown I especially enjoy the view of and from this
temple. Starting just before sunset, one sees first the
sinking
sun shining full on the columns, pylons, and
obelisk.
A stream of women and girls come from the village
with
their water-jars, now often replaced by kerosene-oil
cans,
on their heads. Toward evening every girl in the
village
has to come to get a sufficient supply for the
night. I go
around by the obelisk, through the mosque and to
the
opening beyond. I have already described an
Egyptian
sunset. To-night it is, if possible, even more
brilliant.
The whole
atmosphere is filled with all the colors
of the rainbow. The
surroundings all speak of Egypt
present and past. Back of us
is the mosque and the
native village. Right in front of us is
the ancient temple,
large enough to take up the whole
foreground and open
so that it does not shut out the view of
the western sky,
but allows us to see the whole scene through
its columns.
This makes a picture unequaled in Egypt.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER IX
MORE TEMPLES AND TOMBS
I
T is Sunday morning. We are
again face to face with
the question of sightseeing on the
Sabbath. I can
not attempt its solution. Each person must
answer
for himself. One of my party says truly that we
send missionaries
here to teach, among other things, the
proper
observance of the Sabbath; and when we ourselves
come
we proceed promptly to confound their teaching by
our
example. But what is the proper observance of the
Sabbath?
No man can answer that question for others.
I went across the river again on Saturday afternoon so
that those who preferred not to go on Sunday could see
the most important temples. But we
saw them so much
more thoroughly and
leisurely the next morning that my
story must be based on that
visit.
Contrary to the usual plan we go first to Medinet Habu,
the southernmost temple. We get the longest ride over
before it gets uncomfortably warm and are able to visit
that most important temple before getting tired and
heated. I like Medinet Habu. It was not as large nor
as grand as
Karnak.
For that very reason it is not so
difficult to study and to
understand. It is a ruin, but not
so ruined that it can be
called tumbled-down. It is nearly
as complete as
Edfu and more than a thousand years
older.
One of the great pharaohs built it, Ramses III, not
a mere
Greek Ptolemy.
Here again we must be careful not to confuse the various
buildings,
for we have not one single temple, but
several. I advise going
at once to the main temple. We
are obliged to pass through the
pavilion of Ramses III.
This was the palace and royal
residence, and is the most
complete and almost the only
secular building which we
shall see. It was built of stone and
evidently had brick
wings on each side. The plan seems to have
been made
from one of the Syrian fortresses which we see so
frequently in reliefs of this period. We notice that there
were three stories. The remains of the staircases are
still
visible.
Back of the pavilion is the small temple of Amenertais,
one of the later queens. It reminds us of the little
temple
of Seti II in the fore court at
Karnak.
We now come to the main temple and see how distinct
it is from the buildings in front. The first pylon has the
usual representation of the great king grasping his enemies
by
the hair and smiting them with his club. Ammon Ra
looks on
approvingly. According to Egyptologists the
inscription gives
full credit to Ramses for personal valor.
It does not mention
any defeats. The two courts and the
second pylon are also full
of the successful wars of the king.
The festival of the
ithyphallic god Min, the god of fertility,
is pictured in the
reliefs on the north of the second court.
On the opposite side
is a similar festival of Ptah-Sokaris.
All these and many
others are described at length in the
guidebook, to which I
refer you. I can only repeat that
Medinet Habu is my favorite
temple and worthy of much
more care and study than are
generally given to it.
Leaving the main temple we go to the small one of
Queen Hatasu and Thuthmes III. It was begun by the
former and,
as usual, her name and figure were later
chiseled out by her
nephew. There have been so many
restorations
and additions by later rulers that little is now
left of the
original work.
From Medinet Habu we ride to the small Ptolemaic
temple known as Der el-Medineh. We pass the mouth of
the
valley of the
tombs of the queens. I
shall visit them
on the return trip and shall speak of them
then. The
valley through which we ride and the hill of Kurnet
Murrai
are full of tombs. Most of them have been opened
and
explored, but they are seldom visited and require
special
permission from the inspector of antiquities.
Der el-Medineh is a small temple founded by Ptolemy
IV and completed by Ptolemy IX. It therefore belongs
to the
second century before Christ. As the name shows,
it was once a
Christian convent. It is of minor importance
and interest, and
I almost begrudge the time given to it.
It contains an
interesting relief of the weighing of the
heart by Anubis and
Horus. The ibis-headed Thout,
the god of writing, keeps the
record. Above are the forty-two
judges of the dead. This is
the only example of that
scene in a temple. It is of frequent
occurrence in the
Book of the Dead.
We now come to the necropolis of Sheikh Abd el-
Kurna.
Here are the tombs of the
nobility of the eighteenth dynasty.
Over a hundred have been
explored and numbered. Of
course we have time for only a few
of the more important
and interesting. I am using the word
tomb here in a very
broad sense, referring to the whole
sepulchre perhaps, but
principally to the ornamented
vestibule. For there are the
paintings which make the tomb
interesting to the visitor.
In the private tombs of
Saqqara and Benihasan we
found the subjects of the
reliefs were taken from the life of
the deceased. His deeds,
real or imaginary; his property,
animate and inanimate; his
wife and children are the
favorite
subjects. We see no gods, spirits and demons, as
in the royal
tombs. We find the same thing here in the
private tombs. At
Saqqara the reliefs were cut in
the
stone and made to stand out boldly. They were
probably
originally colored, but the paint has almost
disappeared,
leaving the bare white limestone. At
Thebes all the pictures
are paintings, remarkable for their freshness and
wonderful
preservation.
The tomb of Nakht is one of the most interesting. The
vestibule is a rectangular room covered with pictures
showing the life of the deceased. Turning to the left we
see
him superintending the planting of his estate. Above
we see
the harvesting. Farther on Nakht and his wife
are seated at
the table. They are evidently politely enjoying
themselves,
for their son is presenting them with some
flowers and some
geese, while three professional musicians
perform on their
instruments. Guests are seated in two
rows on the left. It is
a decorous entertainment, doubtless
corresponding to the
American “at home.” The family
cat enjoying a piece of fish on
the floor completes the picture.
Nakht was anxious to have the
pictures in his tomb
homelike. Another scene shows him at an
open-air dinner
in his garden. He occasionally diverts himself
with a
fishing or fowling trip. He was duly attentive to the
gods
and represents himself and wife offering sacrifices
to them.
It would be difficult to make a more complete series of
pictures representing the life of an Egyptian gentleman
and family. The room is small and the entire decoration
was evidently planned to fit the given space. There is no
need of artificial light, so the paintings have happily
escaped much injury. They are also the first that we have
seen by daylight. We admire and marvel at the freshness
of the colors. This burial-place is two thousand years
later than
the tombs of
Saqqara. These centuries
have
witnessed some changes even in Egypt. The herds of
gazelles have disappeared from the land and from the
tomb-pictures. The horse, an animal unknown to the
pyramid kings, now makes his appearance on the stage.
The artist does not surpass his ancient brother, or rather
ancestor, in skill in drawing or relief modeling, but he
has gained some further insight into his craft. He has a
little more knowledge of perspective, disposes his groups
to better advantage, and makes his figures, both of men
and animals, more natural and less conventional.
In the tombs we have the entire life of the period pictured
for us. It is even plainer than if preserved for us in
written books. For a painting in words is, for practical
purposes, inferior to an actual picture. The former
requires
a certain education even to read, and also
imagination
to make the description or word-picture into a
mental
picture. Here we have it spread out before us and
capable
of comprehension at a glance.
The public and the private life of the deceased is portrayed
in all its details. We see him filling public offices,
receiving homage and tribute, at his daily work and at his
pleasures. Some of the latter scenes we would try to
conceal.
Some writers have described the Egyptian as a degraded
sensualist, saying that while all nations had their vices,
he
even had them painted in his tomb, in the pictures for
the
contemplation of his spirit after death, when it
should be
free at least from base earthly thoughts. But the
Egyptian's
thoughts were not necessarily like ours. What
we
consider immoral and indecent did not at all appear so
to
him. He had a naked dancing-girl to perform before
him
without any idea that it was improper and would
subject
him to
criticism four thousand years later in England and
America.
His moral sense, if we may so call it, was undeveloped.
Perhaps he was just as happy and just as pure-minded.
There
are people who have a moral sense so
highly developed, or so
perverted, that evil thoughts are
aroused in them by the sight
of the unclothed human
form in cold marble or bronze.
Occasionally such a work
of art is presented to a library or
museum. Conceived
and executed in the highest taste it carries
no suggestion
of impurity, until one of these morbid purists
sees it and
discovers the hitherto unsuspected and unnoticed
evil. He
hastens to call attention to it, and thenceforth it
becomes
the prominent feature of the work.
“Honi soit qui mal y
pense”—there is no truer saying. In some
things the ancient
Egyptian stood on a higher moral plane than
we do
to-day.
Let us go back to the tombs. We visit several, all of the
same period and general style. One of them, that of
Sennofer,
is in my opinion the finest of all and far
superior in
proportion to its size to any of the
tombs of the kings. I
dislike to mention it, for it can only be seen by the light of
candles or magnesium. The latter is forbidden, but the prohibition
only increases the income of the keeper who can,
by the usual means, be induced to relax the rule “only for
you.” I do not know why magnesium light or fumes is
considered more harmful than the smoke from the candle.
It is deep in the ground and some sort of artificial light
is
indispensable. The paintings do not call for minute
description
here. The interest lies entirely in their
wonderful
color and preservation.
We have one more of the great temple ruins to visit,
the
Ramesseum. It is in a more ruinous
condition than
the other temples which we have lately seen,
and therefore
a good deal
of imagination is required to picture it when
complete. It was
built by Ramses II in the early years of
his reign. Prof.
Petrie calls attention to the fact that the
fragments of wine
jars are dated in the first eight years of
Ramses' reign, but
that some of them are dated in the reign
of his father, Seti
I. From this he draws the conclusion
that the temple was begun
by Seti for his tomb-temple, and
that after his death his
unfilial son appropriated it and gave
him in its place the
temple of
Kurna, which had been
originally
intended for Ramses I. This hypothesis explains
the
curious combination of Ramses I and Seti I at
Kurna, and
also Ramses II
building his funeral temple at the very beginning
of his long
reign. To be sure he did not know that
he was going to reign
sixty-seven years, but it would not
be natural for him to
start right off on the funeral temple,
though perfectly
reasonable if we understand that he found
a splendid one
already started by his father and decided
to make it his own.
I do not like to think of Ramses as an ungrateful son.
Seti was proud of him. There had been an older son, but
he probably died in infancy. Seti took Ramses to the wars
with him, watched over him, trained him as his heir and
gave him a share in the government while he was yet almost
a boy.
In the first court of the
Ramesseum are the fragments
of the shattered colossal
statue of Ramses II. This was
the largest statue ever set up,
as far as we know. We gaze
at it for a few minutes in order to
form some idea of its
magnitude. Its weight has been estimated
at a thousand
tons. In bulk and weight it was about equivalent
to three
times the great obelisk at
Karnak. The ear is more than
a yard in
length, and the foot is a yard and a half in width.
Although a
seated figure, it boasted a height of fifty-seven
and one-half
feet. We thought the statues of Ramses at
Memphis were monsters, but compared with
this huge
figure they were toys.
The reliefs of the battle of Kadesh are interesting.
Ramses dashes against the enemy in his chariot. He is
represented as a giant, and of course the enemy are fleeing
before him. They are driven into the river. Then we see
the
picture of the city of Kadesh, with its battlements and
the
river encompassing it. This is a typical battle-scene,
such as
we find in all temples, but it has especial interest
because
of the connection of the Hittites with the Hebrews,
and
because this campaign was the one of which Ramses
was always
boasting.
Behind the temple are rows of brick vaults. These seem
to have been storehouses for the grain and wine paid as
taxes; for the ancient world had but a small supply of
circulating currency and payments were usually made in
kind. That is, a farmer gave a portion of his crop to pay
his taxes, for he probably had no money. Then it was
simpler for all parties to assess the tax at a percentage
of
the yield without valuing it. A place had to be
provided
for storage. The workmen, soldiers, and civil
officials
were all paid in provisions, such as grain, oil,
and wine.
We ride back to the river, passing the colossi again, with
the feeling that we have done our duty and at least looked
at the sights of ancient
Thebes. To most of us it has been
a confused
jumble of temples and tombs, interesting no
doubt, but
regarded with a feeling that we had come to
see them and
therefore must do so. And the reason of
this unsatisfactory
feeling of confusion is to be found in
the fact that the
attention has been continually directed haphazard
to the
details, such as columns, pylons, reliefs, and
so forth,
picked out merely because of their excellent preservation,
COLOSSAL STATUE OF RAMSES II AT THE RAMESSEUM
because they
represent a famous scene, or for some
similar reason. The
dragoman says, “This is Ramses, this
is Ammon Ra, this is the
enemy,” and in the endeavor to
follow him we lose all chance
to observe the building as a
whole. My plan would be to get a
good idea of the plain
and the various buildings from the top
of the mountain as
we come over from the valley of the
tombs of the kings.
Never
mind if it is hot. It is the coolest place in the neighborhood,
for the breeze comes there if it exists. A few
minutes with
the aid of a rough map will make clear the
plan and enable one
to name and distinguish each place.
Then a few words from the
leader give the history and use
of the buildings, so that we
can begin to know them. The
casual visitor, with only a few
moments for each room, less
than an hour for each building,
cannot profitably spend his
time on the small details. Take
the
Ramesseum which we
have just left; if you carry away a picture of the ruin, a
brief knowledge of its history, and a good idea of the great
statue, you have something to keep and remember, and
that is
vastly better than to have listened for twenty minutes
to a
parrot-like list of gods and names of figures and
pictures
which you do not understand and which makes no
impression on
you. Again I advise the tourist with limited
time to see a few
things satisfactorily and understandingly,
rather than to try
to see everything and understand nothing.
By limited time I
mean about a month for all Egypt,
with three days at
Luxor. As I have said earlier, some
people try to do all Egypt in a week.
My program would be
Karnak and
the town and temple
of
Luxor for the first day. On the second day make
an
early start to the
tombs of the kings.
The temple
of Seti I at
Kurna can be seen without dismounting.
At the tombs,
go first to No. 35, that of Amenhotep II,
with the king
exposed in his coffin. Then to No. 16, belonging
to Ramses
III. Give the most of your time and
strength to No. 17, the
eternal home of the great Seti.
These three tombs, leisurely
seen, will give you a good
idea of them. Those who go with the
dragoman to the
three others usually visited can say that they
have been in
twice as many, but, I am sure, will know less
about them.
A couple of hours is as long as one can profitably
spend
here on a first visit. Brain and limbs become
fatigued and
powerless. I have already advised the walk over
the hill
for all who are capable of it. Take it slowly, and be
sure
to enjoy the view and fix your mind on the map of the
plain.
Leave Der el-Bahri for a more propitious time.
Midday is
the best time for the tomb of Nakht. There is
another interesting
tomb near at hand, that of Mena. It has
recently
been opened. It contains similar scenes and does
not
require artificial light. These two are typical of the
entire
necropolis of Sheikh Abd el-
Kurna. I would also recommend
the tomb
of Sennofer, but that is so fine that I do not
want to add to
its visitors until the electric light is put in. I
want to see
it again undimmed and hope it will survive
for the next
generation. Many fine tombs, discovered fifty
and even twenty
years ago, have been ruined by the criminal
carelessness and
wilful destructiveness of the tourist.
The fine tomb of
Rekhmere, No. 35, has been much
damaged in the last six years.
On the way back to the
river we pass the
Ramesseum, to be visited the next day,
and the
Colossi of Memnon, which can be
looked at now.
On the third day another early start will bring us to Der
el-Bahri at the right time to get the best light on the
pictures
of the expedition to Punt and in all the
corridors and
chambers. Thence to Der el-Medina for just a few
minutes,
and then to the
tombs of the Queens. They are interesting,
not
fatiguing, and do not consume much time.
Medinet Habu should
have the largest shire of the morning.
Then the
Ramesseum and back to
Luxor. The donkey
boys will wish to
take the
Ramesseum first, as that will
save
some distance for them and for the donkeys. There is
no
great objection to this if the start is sufficiently
early and we
are careful not to spend too much time there.
Returning
to luncheon, the first part of the afternoon can
be spent
resting and recuperating, and the last part given
another
visit to
Karnak to the temple of
Luxor.
I consider the above program the best that can be arranged
for the stay of three days. If you can spend more
time, you can see more and see it better. It is possible
to go to more temples and tombs in the three days, thus
enabling more items in the guidebook to be marked as seen.
The village of
Luxor is not
uninteresting, and deserves
more attention than is usually
given by the tourist. It cannot
be called the descendant of
ancient
Thebes, or even its
representative, but is simply a modern village owing its
existence to the interest of the wealthy from afar in the
remains of its predecessor.
The boat traveler soon finds his way to the hotels. They
do not attempt to hide themselves, and the porter welcomes
any stranger who will probably purchase a supply of
souvenir postal cards and pictures and may even relieve
him of some of his stock of genuine antiquities collected
during the summer from the donkey boys, fellahin and
manufacturers
of
Luxor and vicinity. At the hotels we get the
news of
the world, meet acquaintances, make new ones, and
feel in the
midst of the civilization of the twentieth century.
The mission-school quietly does its work without noticing,
and, I fear, often without being noticed by the visitor.
Rev. Mr. Murch is a rare man. He can gather a class of
simple and
ignorant native children and teach them English
and the
rudiments of Christianity, and, it is hoped, convert
some of
them. I almost called them dull, but that would
have been a
grave error, for the native child is remarkably
quick and
compares favorably with the youth of his age
in our most
civilized lands. Judging from the doctor's
library he can
debate higher criticism and concoct a sermon
for the most
learned audience, as well as for his simple
flock. He has also
made his reputation as an Egyptologist.
His judgment on a
scarab or other “antika” is sought and
accepted as conclusive.
I am afraid that most of his pupils
are drawn to the school by
the desire to obtain free
tuition in English, rather than from
a longing to hear the
great truths of Christianity. They are
sharp-witted enough
to appreciate fully the commercial value
to themselves of
a good knowledge of English. Doubtless the
good man
knows this better than I do. He welcomes any
influence
that will bring them within his doors.
The river embankment and the main street are full of
shops for the tourist. Merchants from Ceylon and India
have
their silks and curios from their homes, with no relation
to
Egypt. Maltese deal in pictures, postal cards, and
Egyptian
curios of all sorts. Native Arabs and Copts
carry on the
manufacture and marketing of antiquities.
Some of their goods
are genuine but plentiful, small of
value, high of price. Of
course they have some really
valuable articles, but they have
no bargains for the visitor.
I have already mentioned Muhammad
Muhassib. If you
want a real ancient scarab or other article
as a memento
of your trip, call on him and make your
selection.
The native quarter of the town is typical. We have not
had leisure to examine a village on the river and can well
afford to spend an hour in it now. Probably most of my
readers would
consider that ample time. The houses are
of mud, sometimes
rising to two stories. Some of them
are even fairly clean;
others are not, and some are positively
filthy. Each has a
supply of children. Race suicide
need not be feared. Infant
mortality, as in all Egypt and
similar countries, is large.
The bazaar is worthy of some
notice. It is at its best in the
early forenoon. The country
people bring their vegetables,
fruit, eggs, chickens, and
other produce to the open square
and patiently await customers.
The butchers spread out their
tempting wares,
paying little or no attention to the swarms of
flies or to the
clouds of dust. The dealers in dry-goods,
hardware, and
similar articles have more substantial places,
such as
wooden stalls and houses.
Back of the bazaar and near the road to
Karnak is the
quarter of the Ghawazee
or dancing-girls. The male
tourist is apt to wander thither.
One visit is usually
enough. The dirt and uncleanliness repel
and take
away any charm or gilding usually reputed to be on
vice.
The curious can arrange for one of these girls to
perform
the “danse du ventre.” There is no grace, and, to
my
mind, no sensual pleasure either to the performer or
audience.
The sailors on the “Puritan” can do much
better.
We read in the Arabian Nights and in travelers'
tales
of dancing-girls of wondrous beauty and skill,
trained in
dances which set a man's blood on fire. I credit
the tales
of the Nights, but not those of the modern visitor.
I fear
imagination and a desire to make his experience a
tale
to equal or surpass his predecessors carries him
beyond
strict truth. If I can find such an houri I am
going to see
her perform, improper though it may be. Long and
careful
but fruitless search has convinced me that they
are
all in Paradise.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER X
EDFU AND KOM OMBO
F
OR nearly seventeen hundred
miles, from the Atbara
to the sea, the Nile has no tributaries
pouring their
streams into the main river. On the contrary,
water is continually being taken from her by countless
shadufs, sakiyehs, and more or less powerful pumps, to
say nothing of the village girl with her water-jar.
Therefore
we should expect to find the river larger as we
go up.
As a matter of fact it looks smaller. Above
Luxor we find
no wide
reaches such as are common in the first two or
three hundred
miles above
Cairo. It is, however,
deeper
and the current is swifter, thus giving a stream of
greater
volume.
We make an early start from
Luxor, and the town is
already out of sight when the
passengers begin to come on
deck. At breakfast we pass Meris,
a modern place with
a large sugar-factory. On the east bank, a
little farther
on, is the modern village of
Armant, the representative of
ancient
Hermonthis. The sugar-factory
literally represents
the temple, for it is largely built
therefrom. There
are only traces of the ancient city and
temples and the
steamers do not stop. Miss Edwards gives an
interesting
description of her interview with the bey, or
local ruler.
At that time
Armant was a place of considerable importance.
We now come to two peculiar hills on the west bank
known as
Gebelen, or “two mountains.” On the top of
the higher is the
tomb of the holy saint, Sheikh Musa. In
Egypt and also in
Palestine it is the custom to bury a
saint on a hill if
possible. The white dome of his tomb can
be seen far and wide,
and thus the range of its beneficent
influence is extended. It
also makes it necessary for the
worshiper to go to
considerable physical exertion to reach
the tomb, thus giving
strong evidence of his religious zeal.
It is to be feared that
in some cases a willing spirit gives
way to weak flesh.
Esne is a large and picturesque town on the west bank.
We shall stop here on our return.
It is a long while since we left the pyramids and we do
not expect to find one in this part of the river.
Nevertheless
there is one, the ruined pyramid of Kula. It
is still
about thirty feet high and evidently was once quite a
satisfactory
monument.
On the east bank we see the walls of the city of
El Kab,
one of the most interesting
places on the river, but passed
by because of lack of time and
difficulty of landing. I
have had opportunity to land and
visit the city and tombs
on an earlier trip, and so can say a
few words about them.
The great brick wall of the city,
probably dating from the
Middle Empire (2600
B.C.), is in remarkable preservation.
It is nearly forty feet thick, and has a circumference of a
mile and a half (2420 yards). I enjoyed walking on the
top of
the wall and thinking of the great city with its thousands
of
men and women, active and busy in their life centuries
ago.
El Kab had a prosperous existence
from the
time of the Ancient Empire through the period of
Roman
rule.
The ruined temples are quite a distance from the city,
and probably few travelers will be able to visit them. But
the tombs are
near at hand and well worth the visit. They
are similar to
those at Benihasan and
Aswan, but date
from the beginning of the New Empire (1500
B.C.). From
one of them, that of
Aahmes, a great deal has been learned
about the condition of
the country at the time of the expulsion
of the Hyksos. He was
captain of a vessel and
fought bravely against the Hyksos when
they made their
last stand at Avaris, their stronghold in the
delta. He
then accompanied the king in an expedition to
Nubia.
Again, in the
reign of Thuthmes I, he fought in
Nubia,
this time as admiral of the Egyptian navy.
In his old age
Thuthmes led an Egyptian army to northern
Syria, beyond
Damascus,
to the country of the Euphrates. Aahmes
accompanied the army
and then returned to his native
city to end his days in peace.
It is unfortunate that the tourist steamers do not stop at
El Kab. The reason given is that the
channel lies on the
other side of the river and that it is
therefore difficult to
land. This is true, but the real
reasons are that time has
to be economized and that apparently
there is little to see.
If we had a great ruined temple, or a
gaudily painted royal
tomb, all difficulties would be
overcome. But
El Kab is
an ancient fortified city with its walls in almost perfect
preservation. Many scholars think these walls may date
from
the early times of the Ancient Empire, about 4500
B.C. An hour would give time for a brief
visit. The
tombs could be omitted, for we see similar ones at
Benihasan
and
Aswan.
The traveler by rail can leave
Luxor or
Aswan by the
early train, stop at
Mahamid, walk or ride to
El
Kab and proceed by the second train. Of course, the
dahabiyeh
tourist can stay there as long as he likes.
Opposite
El Kab is
Kom el Ahmar, or “The Red Hill.”
This is the
site of
Hierakonpolis, one of the most
ancient
cities of
Upper
Egypt. There is little or nothing for the
ordinary
visitor to see here, but I call attention to the place
because
we shall see the name so frequently in the museum.
Many
objects from the time of the early dynasties were
found here.
After luncheon we look for the pylon of
Edfu, for it is
so high that it can be
seen for some distance. Afternoon
tea is served a little early
so that we can start for the temple
the moment we arrive.
The boys and donkeys have sighted the steamer and
hasten to meet us. The distance is short and many people
prefer to walk. It is, however, farther than it seems, and
I
think it is better to ride, in order to save time and strength
for the temple.
Some tourists think
Edfu the
most interesting temple
they have seen. This is probably
because it is the best
preserved and also because they have
now seen several
temples and find themselves able to form an
opinion. It
is of late date, and for centuries was buried in
rubbish.
So the courts and halls are complete and we can
get our
best idea of the typical Egyptian temple, at least of
the
Ptolemaic period, here. The greatest damage has
been
done by our friends, the early Coptic Christians, who
took
a wicked and holy pleasure in chopping out the faces
of the
ancient figures, both of gods and men. The work was
not
very old then, two or three centuries perhaps, and so
must
have been quite perfect. Diligent search will reveal
two or
three figures which escaped. We are not inclined to
think
kindly of the good but blind and foolish people who
were
responsible for this work. Still they had their
counter
parts in the Reformation and the same spirit
survives
to-day.
The
temple of Horus at
Edfu reminds us of that of
Hathor at Dendera, and the resemblance is more than a
mere
fancy. They are of about the same period. Each is
a Ptolemaic
temple, built on a site of an ancient sanctuary,
where the
earlier buildings were small or ruined. Horus
of
Edfu was closely related to Hathor of
Dendera, and it
is supposed that the sacred boat or image of
the former
made periodic visits of state to Dendera.
The most striking feature is the great pylon, one hundred
and fifteen feet high, and towering over the whole
temple and city. It is a long way to the top, but I advise
making the ascent for we have another of the fine views
which I personally delight in. Looking to the north, we
see the river valley through which we have been journeying
to-day. It seems, and is, smaller than at
Assiut or at
Luxor. It has the same scene,—the narrow
green valley,
with the barren hills on both sides, and the
river threading
its way and silently showing the reason for
the green fields.
Toward the south lies the town and we are so
placed that
a good deal of the private life of the inhabitants
is exhibited
to us. We look right into the courts and even
into the
houses. The mosque, with its worshipers, the
school,
the bazaar, and the private dwellings are at our
feet. The
temple looks small from our lofty perch. We can
give
some attention to the plan and notice the fact that
the
girdle wall completely encloses the temple and is
entirely
distinct from it.
Edfu is an interesting town.
It is closely built, with
large, substantial houses, and has
an air of progress and
prosperity. The children are better
clothed than in similar
places which we have visited. The boys
go to school
and are all anxious to learn English. They attach
themselves
to the traveler, carefully assuring him that
they are
not after
bakshish, but are eager to practise his language.
Each boy
asks for an English book, and the request is so
sincere and so
praiseworthy that his patron gives him one
at once or promises
to send it.
The spirit of twentieth-century progress has even reached
the dogs. One of them is well known to all steamboat men
on the river. He is just an ordinary ownerless village
dog,
but endowed with unusual intelligence. When a
steamer
makes fast to the bank he takes up his position
exactly
opposite the kitchen. The other dogs have been
taught
that the place belongs to him and allow him plenty
of room.
He sits there silently. The cook knows him and
throws
him sundry bits, so that he gets a good meal.
However
much is given he can always take care of it, for
it may be
some days before the next steamer; besides, pride
and
instinct would not let him allow anything to pass on
to
one of his canine friends or enemies. Usually the
vessel
spends the night at
Edfu, for many of the crew have their
homes here.
But there is a good channel, and the rais
decides to push on
to Gebel Silsileh, the ancient quarries.
I am anxious to visit these quarries, for I have passed
by them often and know that they must be interesting.
This is another place where the steamers ought to land.
Most of the passengers would enjoy a chance to go ashore
without the ever-present donkey boy. Then we have seen
many temples and would like to see the place where all
this
sandstone came from. I am determined to see
something,
and when we make fast set out with two sailors
with candle
lanterns and a supply of Bengal lights. We get to
the
rock chapel of Horemheb and have a good look at it.
The priest-king is represented in his war chariot pursuing
the fleeing enemy, in this case Ethiopians. Then they
come and sue for peace and figure as prisoners in
Horemheb's
triumph. A
curious and finely executed piece of
work is the relief
representing Horemheb as a child suckled
by the goddess. We
wander on, coming to various
small chambers quarried out of
the rock and inscribed
tablets. The chief trouble is that no
one knows anything
about the place and we are therefore
dependent upon
chance. We may be passing close to things of
interest, but
miss them on account of the darkness. The trip
is, however,
enjoyable, and we return to the steamer feeling
repaid
for the exertion.
The larger quarries are on the east bank and a little
farther up-stream. I hope to get a chance to see them on
my
next trip. There is one point where a passage has
been cut
through to the river, and through which one can
see into the
great quarry pit. It is only visible for a moment,
and must be
carefully watched for.
While we are at breakfast on Tuesday the steamer
arives at
Kom Ombo and ties up just above
the temple.
No donkey is necessary, so we are spared one pest.
Two
or three disgustingly deformed beggars have
established
themselves here and are making a good living.
One is
thankful that he is not so afflicted and also wants the
repulsive
creature to leave him; therefore he gives a
small
coin. The smallest coin a tourist is allowed to have
is a
half-piaster, and ten of them make a shilling. So the
beggar
usually does pretty well and does not question or
feel
offended at the motives of the giver. Some
merchants
also have opened their shops and press their
wares in the
usual noisy and annoying way. They have some
antikas
and manufactured scarabs, but the bulk of their
stock consists
of bead necklaces, clay weapons and
ornaments,
spears from the Sudan, stuffed crocodiles, and
similar
treasures.
THE TEMPLE OF KOM OMBO
Kom Ombo is another Ptolemaic
temple built on the
site of one of the eighteenth dynasty. The
pylon has been
carried away by the river, and more would
undoubtedly
have been destroyed but for the protecting
buttress recently
built. It is a double temple, like a double
house, dedicated
to two gods. The northern half was dedicated
to Haroeris,
another form of Horus, and the southern part to
Sebek,
the crocodile god. The plan is exactly the same as
that
of Dendera and
Edfu, except that we have a double entrance
and two
sanctuaries, one for each god. The coloring
of the figures is
well preserved, better than any we have
yet seen in the open
air. We can now recognize the principal
gods and are gradually
becoming able to understand
some of the scenes. Having seen
several temples and become
familiar with their plan, we can
now devote more
attention to the reliefs. But even now we have
not the
time, with our limited knowledge, to examine them
in
detail.
It is interesting to notice that some of these reliefs were
executed under the Ptolemies, while others belong to
Roman emperors. They can easily be distinguished, for
the former are in low relief, the latter “en creux.” On
one
of the ruined walls of the birth-house is an
interesting
representation of Ptolemy Euergetes II sailing
in a boat
through the marshes, in which are papyrus plants
full of
birds.
We leave
Kom Ombo after about
an hour, feeling that
we have had a very satisfactory visit;
for it is simple and
easy to see. We are getting used to
temples now and are
able to see them better and more quickly
as our experience
and knowledge grow.
Thence to
Aswan there is not
much to call for especial
notice. The engineer has a bet that
he will get to
Aswan
earlier than
the “Victoria” did last week and so we are
forced along at
full speed. At eleven o'clock we arrive
at the southern end of
Elephantine Island, opposite
Aswan.
The bet is
won.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER XI
ASWAN
A
SWAN is, and always has been,
an important city.
The interest of the tourist lies in the
island of
Philae with its temples, the bazaar with
its wares
from
Nubia
and the Sudan and the cataract with the
great
barrage. In winter it has now quite a colony
of idle
health-seekers, for it is thought that the climate is
superior
to that of
Luxor and that the proximity to the
great
desert may give extra dryness to the atmosphere.
Aswan is also
the
military headquarters for
Upper Egypt.
Before the
railway was built it was necessary to unload all
vessels here
and send their cargoes to
Shellal to be reloaded there.
Very
little now comes by water, for everything goes direct
to
Shellal by rail. The building of the great
dam has
necessitated a corps of engineers and a large force
of
workmen, so that the military importance of
Aswan has
not waned.
At this season the low water makes it necessary for the
steamers to stop about a mile below the town. The
Anglo-American
steamers lie at the northern end of
Elephantine
Island, because the Savoy Hotel belongs to
that company.
The Cook boats are opposite. In order to reach
the city
we have to walk over the sand to the hotel and take
the
ferry there, or cross the river at the steamer and go
up by
donkey on the east bank. Or we can take a small boat
straight to the landing-place. This is inconvenient, but
unavoidable at this time.
Our program says
Aswan and
Elephantine this afternoon,
Philae and vicinity to-morrow, and
Grenfell's tombs
on Thursday morning. So after luncheon we
embark in
small boats to visit the upper end of the island,
where stood
the ancient city. A century ago there were two
fine temples
here. The Turkish Governor of
Aswan needed a new
palace and helped
himself to the stone. He was more
comfortably housed and the
world lost two monuments of
the Pharaohs. So all that there is
now for the visitor is
the ancient Nilometer or water-gauge.
In ancient times,
as well as to-day, the height of the Nile
was the most important
thing for the people to know. The
farmer arranged
his planting according to it and the taxes
were based
on the maximum height reached each year. So
gauges
were established, and we find them in many of the
temples.
The Arabs delighted in mathematics and they
carefully
recorded the height of the river. Most of us
have seen,
or will see, the Nilometer on the island of
Roda, near the
famous
bulrushes where the infant Moses was found.
For centuries the
Elephantine Nilometer was disused and
lost, but in 1870 it was
repaired and a new scale established.
To-day the height of the
water is carefully registered at
Duem, Khartum, Wady Halfa,
Aswan,
Assiut and
Cairo.
It is telegraphed to
Cairo, and in a few years sufficient data
will be at hand so that very accurate predictions can be
made of the probable height of the coming flood.
After a more or less careful examination of the Nilometer
and neighborhood we cross over to
Aswan, where
Hashim directs us to the
bazaar and abandons us. The
bazaar is interesting to see. If
you want any of the truck
therein, such as ostrich eggs and
feathers, real or imitation
weapons, beads of all kinds,
stuffed crocodiles and similar
curiosities you will be given
ample opportunity to examine,
bargain for,
and purchase. The opportunity will probably
be thrust upon you
whether you wish it or not. If you
are going to Palestine you
will do well to purchase a hippopotamus-hide
kurbatch. The
fancy ones, with bright imitation
silver wire wound around
them, are of the poorest
quality; the best are plain and
should be of one piece. The
proper price is three or four
shillings. These whips come
from the Sudan and rise in price
as they go north. In
Cairo they are expensive, and in
Jerusalem almost unobtainable.
A Syrian horse has a
well-grounded respect for
them, while he laughs at a stick or
at the plaited toys sold
to the traveler in Palestine. In
Egypt, also, one of them
will be found very useful. Nothing
equals it in quieting
a turbulent mob of donkey boys, beggars,
or peddlars. A
smart, stinging lash on the ankle bone is the
proper thing
and will distract the attention wonderfully. I
have never
known it to fail.
We have the choice of two routes to
Philae. The usual
way is to go by donkey to the
quarries and on to
Shellal.
Then the donkeys go to the
barrage while we cross to the
island and afterward
proceed to the
barrage by boat.
From there we ride back on donkeys. The other plan is
to take the train to
Shellal, thence boat to the island and
barrage, coming back by another boat from
below the lock.
This last plan is the best for the less active
and vigorous,
but one does not see as much and has to pay an
extra
dollar.
There is a Cook boat here full of passengers also bound
to
Philae to-day. So
the donkey boys gather in force.
But they have miscalculated,
for quite a large number from
both boats have decided to go by
train and therefore will
not require donkeys. Immediately upon
this fact becoming
known, a small riot breaks out which
reminds me of
the good old
days when a policeman was unknown above
Cairo and the donkey boy was able to
strive for business
unchecked. The solitary representative of
the law can do
nothing. He borrows my kurbatch and whacks the
unoffending
donkeys, not the boys. I take it back and
apply
it where it will do good, and some persons on both
sides are
roughly handled. After we get out, some ladies
innocently
ask why such a disgraceful scene is permitted
to occur.
Well, it is not allowed or commanded by the
authorities,
but happens naturally, just as it might in
our own country.
No great damage is done to any one or to
anything except
the policeman's tarboosh, which has been lost
and trampled
on. It wakes us all up and adds to the interest
of the
morning.
Our first stop is at the quarry. Most of the granite for
the temples came from here. Sandstone came from Silsileh,
while the stone for the pyramids came from Turra.
The great obelisks came from here, and we can see one cut
out and just ready to be moved to the river. It measures
ninety-two feet and would have made a noble monument.
We know nothing of its history or for what temple it was
intended.
After the camera fiends have satisfied their wishes we
ride on to
Shellal. It
has been conjectured that this wide
valley was once the bed of
the river and it certainly looks
so. But this was in
prehistoric times and since then it
has been the highway
between
Aswan and
Shellal. The
traveler or merchant
disembarked and passed the cataract
by this road, either
getting another vessel or waiting for his
ship to go up or
down the dreaded rapids.
Syene, the
ancient
Aswan, was to
them almost the end of the world.
To pass beyond was to enter
an unknown region full of
dangers, real or imaginary. Hence,
the traveler frequently
set up a
votive tablet or used a suitable stone to inscribe his
prayer
for a safe journey or to record his thanks for his
return.
At
Shellal we embark on the
native boat, or felucca.
Before the building of the dam it was
a very simple matter
to cross the channel from the mainland to
Philae, a
distance
of a few feet. Now it is fully half a mile. The
tops of palms
show that we are on flooded ground, which
ought to be bare and
producing its crops. We used to land
comfortably on the island
and walk all over it. Now we
row through the outer court and
come to the frail landing-place
back of the second pylon of
the Temple of Isis. A
series of planks, mounted on piles of
stones, enables us to
enter and to reach the stairway to the
top of the pylon.
From the top we can look over the whole
island and see the
various buildings. The kiosk, known as
Pharaoh's bed,
rises out of the water on the east. Near it is
the Temple of
Hathor, almost covered. In front is the great
pylon, hiding
the outer court with its colonnades. We can
read
about the temple in the guidebook and shall have to
be
satisfied.
When the building of the
barrage was under discussion,
and before the work had
been begun, there was a great deal
of talk about the probable
fate of the buildings on
Philae,
and many plans to save them. It was proposed to build
a wall around the island to keep the water off, or even to
remove everything to a safe place on the mainland. Any
of these schemes would have required quite a sum of
money, and there seemed to be no way of getting that, for
there would be little or no financial return. So the
island
was left to its fate. Three years have now passed
and
there is no damage yet. That is, nothing has
tumbled
down. But the buildings are practically
inaccessible and
invisible
during the entire tourist season. The work of the
water on the
walls is only too apparent. It can not be
denied that the dam
is causing the ruin of the island.
Great benefit to the
country and people is expected from
the dam; and a mere
temple, even though it were one of the
most beautiful in
Egypt, could not be allowed to stand in
the way. It is some
comfort, however, to think that it is
sacrificed for the whole
nation and not destroyed to build a
sugar-factory or a new
palace for a local potentate.
I find that I have forgotten to say anything about the
history of the temples. All the buildings are of late
date,
from 350
B.C.
on. Nektanebo, one of the last of the
pharaohs and a great
temple builder and restorer, planned
the temple here and built
the vestibule. Ptolemy Philadelphus
took up the work and his
successors carried it on.
Then the Roman emperors added their
buildings, figures,
and cartouches. In Christian times it was
used as a Christian
church. In the Middle Ages it was deserted
and of
course furnished a field for a story. The tale is that
a
certain grand vizier had a daughter of wondrous
beauty,
Zahr el-Ward by name, and a young man, Anis
el-Wogud,
fell in love with her, but was not acceptable to
her father.
So he shut the girl up in the castle, that is the
temple, on
the island of
Philae. Anis el-Wogud searched far and wide
for
her and finally found out the place of her captivity.
He
hastened thither, but could not cross to the island on
account
of the swarm of crocodiles. But it chanced that
he had been
kind to animals, even to crocodiles, so one of
them carried
him across on his back. The young lady was
not idle, but
actively planning her escape, that she might
meet her lover.
Unfortunately, she did not know of his
presence on the island
and managed to escape in a boat,
thus making it necessary for
him to go again in search of
THE ISLAND OF PHILAE
her. He
finally found her, the father was smoothed down,
and the
wedding took place. This last scene is laid in
the Osiris room
on the roof of the Temple of Isis.
For most of us this is the farthest point to the south, for
the “Puritan” starts back to-morrow. It is interesting to
know that we are in
Nubia. The natives are of a totally
different race
from the Egyptians or Arabs and have their
own language. They
are negroes, with black hair and
thick lips. Their wants are
few, and they seem cheerful
and contented.
After a cold luncheon, served by the waiters from the
“Puritan,” we row to the great dam. It seems as though we
were on a great lake. There is no perceptible current and
nothing to remind us of the river. The crew row valiantly,
each man howling (singing?) at the top of his voice. They
seem
unable to work without noise, and they have a mistaken
idea
that it delights the traveler and calls for a cash
bakshish
from him. Most of us, after the first selection,
would pay
them to keep quiet.
This great dam is the largest work of the kind in the
world. It is a mile and a quarter long, and at certain places
one hundred feet high and nearly as wide. It is calculated
that it impounds more than a thousand million cubic
meters of
water. The cost was about ten million dollars.
This is a large
sum, but very small for such a great work.
I doubt if it could
be done anywhere else in the world for
the same amount. The
two chief requisites, cheap labor
and cheap stone, were right
at hand. And the labor was
all voluntary and paid for; it
showed that it could be obtained
without resort to the corvée.
I find that most people have a mistaken idea of the purpose
of the
barrage. It is
not primarily intended to increase
the cultivable area of
Egypt. It does add a few
thousand
acres of fertile country, but this is of small importance,
and
would not begin to justify the work. The
real object is to
furnish a supply of water in the low months
—April, May, and
June—and to store enough water at
the flood time in a poor
year to bring the supply up to the
average. If we could be
sure of a good Nile every year,
the principal reason for the
dam would be taken away.
The water is not intended for the
benefit of the country
between
Aswan and
Cairo, but for the
great delta. True,
the former benefits by it, but that is
incidental. The water
is stored here at
Aswan, let down to the
Assiut
barrage and then to the
barrage below
Cairo, whence it is
distributed to the
delta by the mouths of the Nile and
numerous canals. The
period of low Nile is just the time
when the great cotton crop
is growing and needs just
enough water, too much being almost
as bad as too little.
These three barrages enable the supply
to be controlled
and enough to be held up below
Cairo to give sufficient
head for its distribution.
Is the
Aswan dam a success? I
think those best qualified
to judge so regard it. In response
to the popular clamor
to save
Philae it was not made as high as the engineers
desired. Compromises are generally unprofitable, and in
this
case
Philae has not been helped, while
the usefulness
of the dam has been greatly lessened. If
Philae were
to be saved,
sufficient funds should have been appropriated
and proper
measures taken. But the beauty of
the island could not be
allowed to defeat such an important
economic project. Hence
the disastrous compromise.
In considering the matter, we must
remember
that
Philae is not especially valuable as a historical monument.
Its temples are of late date and we have others of
the same epoch and style. So the demand for the
preservation
of
Philae was based on aesthetical grounds,
not on
archaeological or historical ones.
It takes some imagination to picture the cataract without
the dam. I myself have seen it several times before any
work was done. Some idea can be obtained from photographs.
It had a peculiar beauty of its own. It was not
a waterfall or a cascade, but the water rushed down
through
numerous channels. The black rocks were of all
kinds of
fantastic shapes and were highly polished by the
action of
the water. No vegetation, not even a palm-tree, was
visible,
only the desert with rushing stream. I have shot
the cataract
in the native felucca, a sport which can never
again be
enjoyed. There was little danger, but still it was
worth
doing. At the critical moment we rushed on
apparently
straight for a huge rock. But the right
movement of the
helm at the right moment carried us safely
past with just a
few drops of spray, to be magnified, even
before our arrival
at
Aswan, into a soaking.
On this trip we get back to the “Puritan” too late for
luncheon, but with a marvelous appetite for the afternoon
tea. Then we have some more time for
Aswan and the
bazaars.
Grenfell's tombs are on our program for Thursday
morning. Evidently they are there only for ornament, to
fill
out. Hashim mentions them casually, saying that they
are of no
interest whatever. He wants to appear ready to
take us, but
have us not want to go. When I tell him that
I am going with
my party he is astonished. He has lived
all his life in
Aswan, been a dragoman thirty years, and
only been to them twice. But he is relieved when I tell
him that I do not need him.
I consider these tombs very interesting and well worth
the climb. One should go early in the morning, for then
the rising
sun shines directly into them. Most of them are
from the sixth
dynasty, therefore later than those we
saw at
Saqqara and earlier than those we
saw at Benihasan.
They show that the civilization and
art of the Ancient
Empire were not confined to
Memphis and the delta, but
reached even here, to the
first
cataract. As the tombs are
on the side of a hill they
resemble Benihasan in style. The
work of the reliefs, however,
reminds us rather of
Saqqara.
The subjects are, as usual, the life and deeds of the
deceased,
and also his probable experiences in the next
world.
The inclined plane up which the sarcophagi were
hauled
gave the clue to General Grenfell and led to the
discovery.
There must have been a similar one at
Benihasan. The
sand in front of the tombs is full of mummy
beads and it is
quite easy to gather some which can be strung
later. Then
you will have a genuine antika, found by yourself
and without
price.
Another excursion of interest and to be recommended to
those with some muscular power and superfluous time is
to the ruined monastery of Amba Sama'an. One can
climb the hill above the tombs to the saint's grave and
then
go straight to the monastery, or take a boat, land
about
opposite the southern end of Elephantine, and walk
thence.
The monastery was one of the largest in the
country and
existed until the thirteenth century. It was
strongly fortified,
and must have been a strong and important
institution.
There is nothing especial to see, but it
always is
interesting to me to wander over such old ruins and
think
of what they once were. It also adds variety to the
trip,
for we have seen but little of the Christian
monastic remains.
These monasteries played an important part
in
the life and history of Egypt in the Christian period.
Another excursion, and one more attractive to most
tourists, is
that to the Bisharin camp. The Bisharins are
a tribe of
Bedawin Arabs, some of whom are permanently
encamped near
Aswan. They are ignorant savages,
far
lower than the Nubians or other native races in this
part
of the Nile. They pride themselves on their long
black
hair, done up with grease, and a fondness for dirt.
Small
pox and other noxious plagues are frequently in
their tents.
But the visitor must see. Several men seize
spears, one of
them beats a tom-tom and they all jump around
in an aimless
fashion. This is called a native dance and of
course
requires a collection. The children beg for
bakshish, and
the boys and girls sell beads and fancy-work.
Two or
three of the little girls are bright and look as if
they deserved
a better and at least a semi-civilized
education.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER XII
BETWEEN THE CATARACTS
O
N the particular tour which I
have been describing
we do not go beyond
Philae. So I must treat that
portion
of the river from memory of the trip in
1903. I went on
Messrs. Cook's steamer, the “Prince
Abbas.” This was the first
season after the completion of
the
barrage. We left
Aswan by the morning train and
boarded the steamer at
Shellal. Now the steamer comes
through the lock to
Aswan and passengers embark there.
Shellal is the point of
embarkation for all goods and
passengers bound to the Sudan.
The railway ends here.
The whole shore is covered with goods
of every description.
Rain is so rare that it is not
considered necessary to put
freight under cover, and most of
it is of such a character
or so packed that it is not likely
to be stolen. Government
steamers leave almost daily laden
with freight and towing
barges with native passengers or goods
in bulk, especially
coal, for all the coal for steamers and
railroads farther up
the river has to be carried thither. It
comes originally
from England and by the time it gets here
even the price
has reached between two and three pounds per
ton—that
is, four or five times its original value. A coal
mine would
do more for the Sudan than a gold mine and would
probably
be as valuable to its possessor.
I remember well the day of our departure from
Shellal because of a little experience
with a camel. While waiting
for the luggage to be placed on
board I wandered around
on shore. Two
boys were loading an old camel with empty
vitriol carboys.
These are enormous glass bottles encased
in baskets. When a
row of five had been placed on each
side the camel began to
get uneasy. He did not know that
they were empty, and, if
full, ten would be all that a self-respecting
camel would
carry. When another was added
his rage became evident. He was
loosely tied, so he gathered
himself together, jumped up,
planted one spongy hind
hoof in the chest of each boy, shook
off his load and ran.
Every man in the neighborhood was
convulsed with
laughter. Meanwhile the luggage had been placed
on
board and the steamer was quietly moving off. I
saw it
just in time to
run to the pier and hail her. She stopped
and sent a small
boat for me. Had she gone a hundred
yards farther I should
have been left, with no possible
chance of overtaking her.
It is two hundred and ten miles from
Shellal to Wady
Halfa. This is
Nubia, quite a different land from Egypt.
I have already spoken of the people. The villages are
small, but numerous. We find quite a number of small
temples. Most of them date from the centuries just before
the beginning of our era. At this time the river was a
great
highway of trade and travel between Egypt and
Ethiopia.
The latter was not the modern country of
Abyssinia, the
mountainous land to the southeast, but rather
the river
land, the modern Sudan. The strong kings of Egypt
made victorious campaigns against Ethiopia, and when
Egypt was weak or engaged in civil war the armies from
the south invaded her. In early times
Aswan was the
southern border of
Egypt. Usertesen III, the great
pharaoh of the twelfth
dynasty, pushed southward and
built the fortresses of Semneh
and Kummeh, about thirty
miles above the second cataract. This
was really the
southern
boundary of Egypt, though some of the kings of
the New Empire
carried their power still farther south.
During the Hyksos
rule Egyptian authority ended again
at
Aswan, but after their expulsion Thuthmes I
reconquered
the country.
The strip of cultivable land is quite narrow, but usually
exists on both banks. The bordering mountains are near
to the river and we are more conscious that we are in a
valley than we were in Egypt. The river is much deeper
and for the first half of our journey there is no current.
This is of course due to the
barrage. There is more
scenery than on the lower
river. At Kalabsheh we pass
through a gorge which, when the
stream is full, is a veritable
rapid, almost a cataract. At
Korosko we ascend the
Awas el Guarani, a famous viewpoint. It is also a popular
pilgrimage, for a holy saint is buried on the top. The
view,
especially at sunrise or sunset, is interesting. We
see the
familiar valley of the Nile, and beyond it the Libyan
Mountains covered with coarse-grained yellow sand. The
hills
around us on the east bank are apparently of volcanic
origin
and are covered with rocks and stones. Through
these hills led
the the great caravan route to Abu Hamed,
above the fourth
cataract. Most of the famous expeditions,
both military and
commercial, to Khartum and the
Upper Nile took this route. It
was the path by which a
great deal of the commerce from the
Sudan reached Egypt.
The climate of
Nubia is
noticeably different from that
of Egypt. It is more uniform;
the nights are cool but not
chilly, and there is a softness of
the atmosphere which we
have not found hitherto in our
journey. Some time the
army of winter health-seekers will come
south from
Luxor and
Aswan to
Nubia.
Among the characteristics of
Nubia I must not forget the
water-wheel.
This is a sakiyeh similar to that of Egypt,
yet with its own
special features. It is usually worked by
two bullocks, with a
small urchin to drive them. It has a
delightful squeak which
cannot be described and which the
owner would not part with at
any price. Without it its
work would seem only half done.
These water-wheels
are numerous and entirely take the place of
the
shaduf.
Most of the temples are small and unimportant. I dare
not say uninteresting, for every Egyptian temple has some
interest, either in its architecture and reliefs or in its history.
But I have devoted considerable attention to the
great temples of Egypt proper and shall therefore only
mention a few of the most important in
Nubia. Kalabsheh
boasts two temples,
one of them the largest south of Philæ.
It was dedicated to
the local god, Mandulis, the Nubian
Horus. It is a complete
temple, with pylon, court, hypostyle
halls and outer girdle
wall. Amenhotep II founded
it, but it was added to and
completed by one of the Ptolemies.
The small rock temple known
as Bet el Wali is near
Kalabsheh. It is partly a built temple,
partly hewn in
the rock. We remember the Speos at Benihasan.
That
would, if finished, have made a similar temple. We
are
soon to see the greatest of all rock temples,
Abu Simbel.
Bet el Wali
was constructed by the great Ramses. The
reliefs refer to his
campaigns in Ethiopia and
Syria and
have been favorite subjects for study and illustration.
Amada is a small but very fine temple built by Thuthmes
III and going back originally to Usertesen III. Miss
Edwards admires the reliefs in this temple, saying that
the
art of relief modeling seems here to have reached the
zenith
of development.
The great temple of
Nubia, and
in fact the principal
object of the
journey from
Aswan, is the famous rock
temple of . It is one of the wonders of Egypt,
worthy of a place beside the pyramids and
Karnak. When
we began our river journey the first
antiquity which we saw
was the colossal statue of Ramses II
which stood in front
of the Temple of Ptah at
Memphis. Now, within forty
miles of Wady Halfa, the second cataract, and the end of
our journey, we find this great work of his, and all the way
from
Memphis to
Abu Simbel we have heard his name. He
had a long reign—sixty-seven years—besides his co-rulership
with his father, Seti. Egypt was at the height of he
power and
prosperity. Thuthmes III and Seti I had waged
war north and
south. To be sure Ramses had a war with
the Hittites in the
early part of his reign and is frequently
represented in
battle-scenes, but he did not have to carry
on much serious
warfare and tried to get the most glory out
of one or two
battles. During his entire reign, and also
during that of his
father, the military power of Egypt was
firmly established. He
had plenty of slaves and plenty of
time. This partly explains
his great reputation and the
long list of his buildings and
monuments. But even with
all these things in his favor he
could not have maintained
his position and accomplished his
work had he not been a
very able man. There has been some
tendency to belittle
Ramses on the ground that he stole some
of his fame by
substituting his name for that of his
predecessors, notably
Thuthmes III. But Ramses was not the
only one guilty
of this crime, and such cases are so few and
comparatively
unimportant that they ought not to weigh
heavily in our
estimate of Ramses. He is the great popular
hero of Egypt
and has been for centuries. He overshadowed all
kings
before him, and no ruler afterward crowded him
out.
More donkeys are named after him to-day than after
all the
other
pharaohs put together. This is a sure sign of greatness
and
undying popularity.
We are not unprepared for
Abu
Simbel. We have been
looking forward to it ever since
we left Philæ, and to most
of us it is the main object of our
trip beyond the second
cataract. We are familiar with the
pictures of the four
colossal statues. Of course these
represent Ramses, the
founder and builder of the temple. They
are the characteristic
and the principal things to be seen and
remembered
here. One cannot see them well from the
terrace
beneath them, for he is too near. Perhaps the best
viewpoint
is the sand-hill to the north. The
southernmost
figure is the best preserved. We can compare
the features
of Ramses with the Colossi at
Memphis and also with his
mummy. Here
they owe something to the artist's desire
to flatter his
majesty, but we can see the characteristic nose
and trace a
likeness. The figures are sixty-six feet high,
twice the
height of those at
Memphis. Moreover,
they are
seated, and therefore should be compared rather with
the
fallen colossus at the
Ramesseum. The dimensions are
nearly the same.
Here the figures are a little longer and
have not as great
bulk. The second figure is almost entirely
destroyed. The two
others are in good condition,
though each has suffered minor
injuries and neither equals
the first in preservation. I think
they were inferior even
when all were new. The lines seem less
delicate, the attitude
is stiffer and more constrained, while
the whole figure
seems coarser and heavier.
The temple was dedicated to the great Ammon Ra, and
also to Harmakhis.
We enter and find that the plan is the same as in a regular
temple. The whole series of rooms and corridors are
cut in the rock. The first chamber is the great hypostyle
hall. The
roof is supported by eight square columns.
The reliefs on the
wall are of the usual character. Ramses
grasps groups of
enemies by their combined hair and
holds his club ready to
smite them. He represents himself
worshiping various gods. On
the north wall we
have the battle of Kadesh, which we remember
was the
prominent subject at the
Ramesseum. This war with the
Hittites
was Ramses's greatest campaign, and so we meet
with it often.
Ramses is the central figure, of gigantic size,
triumphing
over his foes. It would probably have been
risky for any
Egyptian citizen of that time to suggest, or
even think, that
perhaps the victory was not entirely due
to the personal might
and valor of Ramses, aided by
Ammon Ra.
The small hypostyle hall is supported by four square
columns. On the south wall the king, with one of his
wives,
is depicted offering incense to Ammon Ra, or, rather,
to the
sacred boat of the god. Harmakhis is honored in
the same way
on the opposite side.
Then we come to the sanctuary, with the altar. On the
end wall are four figures of deities, Ammon Ra, Harmakhis,
Ptah (an especial favorite of Ramses), and the deified Ramses
himself.
Several long and narrow side chambers are dug out at
the side of the great hall. They are covered with inferior
reliefs and are full of bats. They were probably store-rooms
or possibly were for the priests and attendants.
The temple faces exactly east. At sunrise, therefore, the
sun's rays shine directly into the door, lighting the
whole
hall. In March, the beams shine full on the figures
behind
the altar. The steamers spend the night here, and
no one
can afford not to rise and see the sunrise in the
temple.
Doubtless this effect was planned for by the
builders.
A few paces to the south is a small excavated room, discovered
by Miss Edwards's party in 1874. This was probably
the birth-house of the large temple. Miss Edwards
thought that it was the library of the temple, but seems
to
have based her opinion on the picture of Thout, the god
of
letters, and the indisputable fact that the temple
ought to
have had a library.
North of the main temple we have another rock temple
built by the same Ramses II and dedicated to Hathor.
The
façade has six colossal statues, three on each side of
the
door. They are standing, each in its own niche.
They represent
Ramses and his favorite queen, Nefertari.
The interior
consists of a large hypostyle hall with six
square columns.
Then comes a small room, back of which
is a small sanctuary.
The reliefs are unimportant, usually
representing Ramses or
the Queen worshiping a god.
The night at
Abu Simbel gives
us a good chance to see
the Southern Cross. At two o'clock in
the morning this
constellation is quite high in the southern
sky. This is
hardly to be considered as one of the sights of
Egypt, but
we have heard a great deal about it and it is
interesting to
see it from the particular place.
From
Abu Simbel we go straight
to Wady Halfa.
This is another city owing its existence to the
commerce
between Egypt and the Sudan. All goods have to be
unloaded
here and transferred to the train. The
steamers
can go no farther, on account of the cataract.
The road to
Khartum was built by Lord Kitchener as a military
road.
Since the conquest it has paid for itself as a
commercial
enterprise. There is a train de luxe with
sleeping and
dining cars twice a week. The traveler can thus
journey
across the desert at a speed of twenty miles an
hour with
all the comforts of civilization, where, less than
ten years
ago, the
entire country was under the rule of an ignorant
black despot
and sunk in barbarism.
From Wady Halfa we make an excursion to
Abusir, the
great rock overlooking the
second cataract. The donkeys
are sent across the river and
ordered to meet us at the
ruined temples of Beheni, whither we
go by boat. The
northernmost temple was built by Usertesen
III, the great
king of the twelfth dynasty. The other was
built by Queen
Hatasu and Thuthmes III. So they are connected
with
the two great advances of Egypt to the south.
It is quite a ride from here to
Abusir. But this is our
only donkey ride in
Nubia, for all the temples have been
near the bank. From the rock we get a wonderful view,
perhaps the most striking that we have in Egypt. We
are several hundred feet above the river and valley. At
our feet is the cataract—not a fall, but a series of
rapids.
The blackened stones glitter as at
Aswan, but this cataract
extends for ninety miles and is practically unnavigable.
We
are only thirty-five miles from Semneh, the frontier
fortress
of Egypt, built in the twelfth dynasty (2500
B.C.).
Afar off on the horizon are the two mountain
peaks which
mark the road to Dongola.
Travelers are in the habit of carving their names on the
rock of
Abusir. It is
large enough to accommodate a goodly
number and the practice
does no harm. Would that we
could induce every one to refrain
from defacing the tombs
and temples and content himself with
an autograph here.
The return voyage from Wady Halfa is made quickly,
for most of the sightseeing has been done on the way up.
We
leave late in the afternoon and spend the night at Abu
Simbel.
This gives us another opportunity to see the temple
at
sunrise.
Our only other stop of interest is at Kasr
Ibrim. This
is an ancient
fortress, not Egyptian, but Roman. It was
kept up all through
the Middle Ages and, in fact, was finally
abandoned less than
a century ago. I enjoy such places,
for they relieve the
monotony of temple and tomb. They
show us another side of the
life of the people. A fort
of that sort was really a village.
The soldiers lived with
their families in houses, not in
barracks. Intercourse with
the rest of the world was more or
less open, according to the
state of the country. The temple,
of Roman work, and a
Byzantine church supplied the religious
needs of the inhabitants.
From Kasr
Ibrim we go directly
to
Shellal, stopping
only for the night.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER XIII
THE RETURN TO CAIRO
W
E left the “Puritan” at
Aswan ready to start on
her journey northward. We leave at noon on
Thursday. It has
looked like rain all the morning,
and remarks are made that in
any other country we
should expect a shower. In this case
Egypt proves that
she belongs to the great family of nations,
for shortly
after luncheon we are treated to a heavy tropical
downpour.
At
Alexandria rain is quite common during the
winter
months, and at
Cairo occasional heavy
showers
occur. But here rain falls very seldom, perhaps
once in a
dozen years, so the natives are totally unprepared
for it.
The roof of the “Puritan” has been exposed for many
days
to the hot sun and is not at all water-tight, to the
damage
of some staterooms and property.
Kom Ombo is a very pretty
sight from the river in the
late afternoon. The sun shines
full on the temple, which
is just enough ruined to allow its
light to reach the interior.
It is the only temple which makes a fine appearance from
the passing steamer.
Then we pass Gebel Silsileh, wishing again for opportunity
to visit the quarries, even if for only half an hour.
We spend the night at
Edfu,
where many of the crew
visit their families on shore.
Our next temple is Esne. There is not much to say
about it, for the reason that only one room, the vestibule,
has been
excavated. This was done by Mehemet Ali,
not from antiquarian
zeal, but for a powder-magazine.
Judging from the vestibule,
we have here one of the largest
and most perfect temples in
Egypt waiting to be excavated.
Western ideas of right and
justice are making progress in
Egypt every day, rendering
excavation more difficult and
expensive. When Mehemet Ali
wanted to excavate a part
of it the native occupants, or
owners, were probably told
to move, and did not consider it
wise to argue the matter.
The ground above the temple is
covered with the business
blocks and residences of the
inhabitants of Esne, and if
they are dispossessed they will
have to be compensated.
A few years hence they will feel
entitled to fix their own
compensation or to argue it
endlessly in the courts. So
the work should be done at once.
The temple was dedicated to Khnum, the ram-headed
god. The vestibule dates from the times of the Roman
emperors,
a little later than Dendera and
Edfu.
Apparently
it is similar in style to those temples. There
is an
inscription to the effect that Thuthmes III built the
sanctuary,
and there are indications that Ramses II did
some
work here. It is interesting to see the name of the
Roman
emperor Decius, the latest royal name in
hieroglyphs.
The village of Esne deserves some attention. Until
1889 it was the capital of the province, which was then
divided between
Aswan and
Keneh. It is still an important
centre of native local commerce. There is a small bazaar
with the usual native shops, and, of course, picturesque
dirt. It is a busy place and the observant traveler can
find
much to interest him. To-day is Friday, and the
morning
service is being held at the mosque. It would not
be courteous
for a Christian and a stranger to go there merely
to
look on, but we can glance within as we pass. The
audience
are all men,
grave, dignified, and respectable citizens.
They have come
here to worship Allah, or God. And
who can say that their
worship and adoration of the Deity
is not just as sincere and
just as acceptable to God as that
practised under any other
creed or in any other part of this
world? It is not our form
of worship, for we were not born
and brought up in it. That is
what really determines a
person's religion; seldom is it a
matter of individual and
independent conviction.
The muezzin, giving the call to prayer from the minaret,
makes a typical Eastern picture and is fair game for the
camera.
As we leave the landing the Cook tourist steamer comes
up, having left
Luxor
this morning. Esne has thus two
steamers in one day,
permitting an important saving in
time to the merchant or
peddlar whose attention is chiefly
directed toward the tourist
trade.
We arrive at
Luxor at about
one o'clock and have another
half a day here. This is usually
and wisely devoted
to another visit to
Karnak, for this is the greatest and most
important temple not only in
Luxor but in all Egypt. So
it is well to go there
again after an interval has elapsed since
the first visit and
after seeing the temples of the upper river.
There is still
insufficient time, and none of us has the
knowledge, to study
the details of reliefs and inscriptions.
The views from the
pylon and from different positions outside
and inside should
be the main objects of the tourist.
For myself, I plan to cross the river and visit the tombs
of the queens and other private tombs which I have not yet
seen. My donkey boy, Isma'il, is engaged elsewhere, so I
employ his brother, Mustapha. At the outset I have
trouble at the ferry-boat. There is a European ferry
managed
by the
Luxor Hotel for the benefit of the tourist and
at a charge
of five piasters. When I go alone I use the
native boat filled
with fellahin and donkeys. The fare is a
small piaster for the
round trip. But the ferryman knows
the charge on the other
boat and thinks the foreigner should
pay the same on his boat.
Now it chanced that the previous
week I had gone across on the
local boat. Each native
paid the small piaster, or even less,
but when I handed the
same coin to the ferryman there was
trouble. He looked
at it and inquired if it was a bakshish. I
replied that it
was his regular fare. Then his feelings
overcame him.
Did I suppose that he could run that ferry and
support his
wives, and Allah only knew how many children, on
that
fare? I remarked that he had my sympathy, and that
if
the other passengers were moved to add another coin
to
their payment I would do the same. The others looked
on and listened with interest, but no one offered more
money. He remembers the incident and demands five
piasters from me before starting. I inform him that I will
pay the same as the other passengers. There seems to be
a deadlock, but soon the audible impatience of the other
induces him to start. According to custom, I defer the
payment until the return passage. When we come back,
Mustapha, the donkey (who by the way rejoices in the
name of “Sunny Jim”) and myself are the only passengers.
I overhear the conversation between Mustapha and the
boatman: “Whatever the howaga gives you, take it and
say, 'Kattar kherak ketir' ('Thank you very much;'
literally,
'May thy goods increase greatly'), otherwise
trouble will
come upon you, soon and heavy. For he is a great
officer
from the museum, so look out for yourself.”
Mustapha
is impressive. When we land I hand the man the
regular
fare, one small piaster for each of us, and it is
most humbly
and thankfully received.
I go first to the tombs of Sheikh Abd el-
Kurna and visit
several of minor
importance which I want to see for
special reasons. None of
them requires mention here.
They are similar in date and style
to the tomb of Nakht,
which has already been described.
We now go to the
tombs of the
queens. The road passes
Der el-Medineh and goes up the
valley. These tombs are
described in our guide-books as
uninteresting. An Italian
expedition has recently (1903)
worked here and made the
finest tombs accessible. The ghaffir
is an old man and
very talkative. He has a dog—one of the
ordinary wild
native dogs. Tutu is well cared for and well
fed. She is
intelligent, and shows that these wolves have good
qualities
and are capable of becoming useful and
companionable
animals.
The tombs of Prince Kha-em-uas and of Queen Titi are
the most interesting of those at present accessible. They
are not as extensive as the
tombs of the
kings. The work,
however, seems equally good, and
sometimes it is in better
preservation. The figures are large
and boldly executed
and the coloring is fresh and vivid. The
subjects are, as
usual in royal tombs, the gods and regions of
the lower
world, but the unpleasant and frightful scenes are
avoided.
These tombs are not yet included in the steamer's
program,
for their interest and even the fact that they
are open
are not generally known and the steamboat companies
and
dragomans do not want to add to the fatigue of the
tourist.
In the evening we visit
Karnak
by moonlight. I
would not recommend a night view before the
temple had
been seen by daylight, for it cannot be enjoyed as
a whole
until one has made a fairly thorough study of it.
Then
a visit by moonlight is impressive and by all means
to
be
recommended. I remember my first night at
Karnak.
Five of us, all young Americans, walked
down in the dark
of the early evening. The moon would not rise
until two
o'clock. We climbed the pylon and tried to sleep
there,
but the cold and the dogs did not permit much rest.
At
three we stood watching the rising moon gradually light
up
the ruined pile. The little foreign Protestant
cemetery
stood out in the landscape toward
Luxor; it already had
a
few occupants, people who had come to
Luxor vainly
hoping that the wonderful air and climate
would give back
to them their lost health and strength. We
joked about
it, saying that if one of us should step off the
pylon there
would be another resident of the cemetery. That
afternoon,
one of us, a young man from the city of
Providence,
Rhode Island, was drowned in the river and the
next day
we attended his burial. The jest was turned
suddenly
and grimly into reality.
On moonlight nights the hotel barge comes down full of
tourists. The trip is novel and interesting. Quiet reigns,
or would reign but for the mongrel village dog. An
adequate
idea of his noise-producing power can be
obtained
only by a moonlight walk near his haunts. In the
daytime
he is lazy and sleeps most of the time, but at
night and
especially when the moon lights up the country our
friend
becomes thoroughly alive. He barks lively and
loudly on
general principles, and when he hears footsteps,
especially
of strangers, his efforts are redoubled.
The ghaffirs are on duty every night and are especially
alert when there is a chance of visitors and bakshish. We
wander through the court and the great hall. A ruin such
as
Karnak loses the
sense of wreck and decay under the
light of the moon. The
tumbledown effect is still there,
for that belongs to the
heaps of débris and fallen stones,
but the light
is not strong enough to show and bring out
the minor evidences
of decay and ruin. It shines on the
mass of building and
stone, and we think of it only as a
huge pile once a mighty
temple.
The best viewpoint is a few hundred feet south from the
triumphal monument of Shishak. The top of the ruined
pylons of Horemheb would probably be the very best place.
In the interior each place has its own charm, though
perhaps
the visitor will linger longest at the foot of the
fallen
obelisk.
The Temple of
Luxor is
especially beautiful by moonlight.
So much is open and
colonnaded that the light has
full opportunity to shine
through the whole structure. It
is, of course, easily visited
from the steamer or from the
hotels.
We leave
Luxor at daybreak,
for the dreaded drawbridge
is again ahead of us. We have a
quiet day among familiar
scenes. We came slowly up this part
of the river some
ten days ago. The rest is appreciated, for
we have had busy
and strenuous days, and to-morrow comes
Abydos, the
longest and
in some respects the most fatiguing excursion
on the river.
We have an opportunity to spend the evening in Baliana.
It is a large town with perhaps seven thousand
inhabitants.
There is a sort of a bar kept by a Greek and
a few hovels
called coffee-houses. These are kept open until
about ten
o'clock and are patronized by our sailors and their
fellows
from other craft. They smoke cigarettes and
indulge in
mild gambling. Coffee is the regular drink and
story-telling
the principal amusement. All the other
houses in the
town are locked and bolted, and most of their
occupants
are in bed soon after sunset. Life is not very
rapid in
Baliana or other Nile villages. The people arise at
day
break for the
early prayer, so that their day really begins
at sunrise.
It is Sunday again, and also the day for our excursion to
Abydos. The trip means about sixteen
miles on a donkey,
and I advise some of the party not to
attempt it. But most
of them are now accustomed to riding. The
road passes
through the village and then across the cultivated
country.
Nowhere in Egypt is the ride more interesting.
This is
the richest and best cultivated land south of
Cairo. At this
time of
the year, early March, the crops are being harvested.
In some
fields they have already been gathered and the
farmer is
plowing again. The whole family comes to the
field to work.
The youngest are placed in a safe corner
to take care of
themselves, and are usually made useful in
watching the goats
or sometimes taking charge of an ungainly
buffalo. All kinds
of domestic animals—cattle,
sheep, goats, camels, horses, and
donkeys—are seen all
over the plain.
To those acquainted with and interested in the history
of Egypt,
Abydos is
most important, for it was the holy
city, the burial-place of
Osiris. At least his head was
buried here, but his body was
cut up into fourteen pieces
and scattered throughout Egypt.
Numerous though the
gods of Egypt were, Osiris was always
looked on as the
oldest and most powerful. The pious Egyptian
regarded
Abydos as the holiest of burial-places,
so we find here
tombs of all ages.
The two temples, however, are in ruins, and there is not
so much to interest the mere sightseer. Therefore I advise
the omission of
Abydos
by those who do not enjoy the ride
and who are interested only
in temples and tombs which
are sufficiently grand and well
preserved to excite their
admiration.
As the journey is long and the powers of the travelers
and donkeys varied, the company do not try to keep
together.
We all gather at the Coptic convent of Anba
Musa. The church has nothing of especial interest, but
it is well to see it, for we have seen the ruins of several
such
establishments without having opportunity to enter.
Then
the priest needs a bakshish to help out his salary.
Near the convent are the remains of the ancient city of
Abydos and the Temple of Osiris. It is
supposed that this
was the site of the famous shrine. Outside
the city, to the
west, are the tombs of the Middle Empire.
Many of them
are of brick and built in the form of a small
pyramid.
Farther to the west is a rectangular building,
the ancient
fortress called Shunet ez-Zebib. It reminds us of
the fortified
city of
El
Kab.
Then we come to the
Temple of Ramses
II. It was, of
course, dedicated to Osiris. It is
almost destroyed, but we
can see the plan, and the decorations
left on the lower parts
of walls give us some idea of its
splendor. Fine-grained
limestone was chiefly used in its
construction. The sanctuary
was lined with oriental alabaster;
the columns were
of sandstone, and fine granite was used for
the doors. The
colored reliefs are the finest that we have
seen in any
temple and are only surpassed in some of the tombs
of
Thebes. This was undoubtedly one of the
finest temples in
all Egypt, perhaps the masterpiece of the
great builder,
Ramses II. We cannot spend much time here, for
the
great temple is awaiting us.
The Temple of Osiris, built by Seti I, is the main object
of our visit to
Abydos. Strabo speaks of it as the Memnonium,
and it
was much visited and admired by travelers
in Roman times. In
fact, this temple, together with the
tombs of the kings and the
colossi of Memnon at
Thebes,
and perhaps
the pyramids, seem to have been the principal
places of
interest to them. The other temples were still
in use and some
had only recently been built; mere age
will do much to make
things interesting and famous.
Hitherto our temples have been built on the same general
plan, but this one has certain peculiarities. All of them
had one god to whom they were dedicated and to whom
the sanctuary belonged.
Kom
Ombo alone was a double
temple, dedicated to two
gods. Here at
Abydos we have
seven gods, each with his sanctuary. Then there is also
a wing at the southwest corner which has puzzled some
authorities. It seems that the architect wanted to have
some more rooms and found his way blocked by the cliff.
Rather than remove it or excavate into it he added this
wing.
The first court, with its pylons, has been entirely destroyed;
most of the second court has part of the walls
standing. The latter was built by Ramses II and has a
long inscription praising him and his filial piety in
completing
the temple begun by his father. The effect of
all
this is somewhat marred by the fact that he filled the
temple
with reliefs and inscriptions in praise of himself.
He even
went so far as to cut out his father's figure in some
places
and insert his own.
We enter the hypostyle hall and find it divided into seven
sections. Each section is opposite one of the sanctuaries
and belonged to the corresponding god. This hall also
was built by Ramses.
The second hypostyle hall is higher and wider. It has
three rows of columns. We have now come to the work of
Seti. The reliefs on the north wall are considered the
finest
in the temple and, indeed, in all Egypt. Seti is
offering an
image of Maat, the goddess of truth and justice,
to the great
Osiris. The paint has worn off, but perhaps
the figure is just
as beautiful without it. Hi, the King's
chief sculptor, could
well be proud of his work.
We now come to the seven sanctuaries. The centre one
is dedicated to Ammon; on his right are Osiris, Isis, and
Horus, and on his left are Harmakhis, Ptah, and the deified
Seti. We have not paid much attention to the figures of
the
gods, for I feel sure that the tourist can learn more
about
the temples and enjoy them more by devoting his
attention to
the building as a whole, and to the subjects of
especial
interest in each, rather than to spend his energies,
at least
at first, on the details of the sculpture. This is a
very good
place, however, to examine the figures of the
various deities.
Almost all of them are represented in this
temple.
In the south wing is the gallery with the famous list of
the kings. It begins with Mena, whom we have become
accustomed to call the first historical king of Egypt, and
contains seventy-six names. These were only the most
prominent rulers, those considered by Seti worthy of a
place. It is, perhaps, the most important historical
document
in any temple, for it gives us the list as it
existed three
thousand years ago. Notice the figures of Seti
and Ramses,
wearing the side-lock of youth.
Hashim has thoughtfully brought a basket of oranges.
They are refreshing, for we have had a long morning and
most of us have a prejudice against drinking the unfiltered
water from the earthen jars which the little girls offer.
Moreover, we are nearing the end of our journey, and
Hashim
wants to make his thoughtful care plainly evident.
I must not forget to mention the old tombs at Umm el
Ga'ab. These were explored by Prof. Petrie and yielded
much
spoil of great historic interest and value. Prof.
Petrie
assigns them to the time just before King Menes
and makes
another dynasty of ten kings, which he calls
Dynasty O. He
thinks that these kings were buried here.
There is now nothing
to see except the bare brick tombs,
for they were uninscribed,
and everything found in them
was taken to
Cairo.
The long trip back comes at noon, but there is a cool
breeze from the north which tempers the heat, and I, for
one, have a delightful ride. It is our last excursion on the
river; we are almost sorry to give the bakshish to our last
donkey boy.
The Puritan makes such good time going downstream
that we are at
Assiut by ten o'clock on
Monday morning.
We halt here only for mail and provisions. The
passage
of the lock at the
barrage takes some time, for there is quite
a
fleet of felukas coming up. About the middle of the
afternoon
we arrive at Haggi Qandil. I made a special
request of the
owners to stop here, for the palace floor is
quite interesting
and accessible.
A small house has been built over it for protection. One
of our fellow-passengers has forgotten the dragoman's
injunction,
“Monument tickets very much wanted—no
ticket,
no, in.” Had he said so civilly to the ghaffir and
perhaps
offered a small bakshish there would have been
no
trouble, but he tried to push his way in and in the
ensuing
scrimmage his feelings and his clothes suffered.
Nothing
could be done for him, for the ghaffir was only
doing his
duty, and the gentleman, moreover, had not won our
respect
and esteem during the voyage.
Tell el-Amarna has an
interesting history. Amenhotep
III had the usual assortment of
wives, and one of them,
Tyi, bore him a son who became his
successor, Amenhotep
IV. The power of the priests of Ammon
over the pharaoh
was becoming
irksome to him, and Amenhotep III seems to
have leaned towards
the worship of Ra the great sun-god at
Heliopolis. Six years after he ascended
the throne Amenhotep
IV cast aside the god Ammon and the whole
group
of Theban deities. He changed his name to
Akhenaten,
or, as some read it, Khuenaten, which means
“splendor of
the sun's disk.” He left
Thebes with his court and established
a new capital which he called Ekhut-Aten. After
a total reign
of eighteen years he died, perhaps by assassination.
He left
no sons, so the husband of his eldest daughter
succeeded him.
This king seems to have remained only
about a year at
Tell el-Amarna . The city then rapidly
declined, and in less than half a century was completely
abandoned. The public buildings were new and they were
probably removed to other places, so it happens that we
have only the remains of the ordinary houses of the city.
Only the nobles who chanced to die during the short
reign of Amenhotep were buried here. Some of them had
already
begun their tombs at
Thebes; others
started tombs
here, but when they later moved back to
Thebes they built
others
there.
The effect of this change in religion on the part of the
king was instantly felt throughout the whole country. He
was not content to hide his light under a bushel, but set
to
work at once to forcibly convert the people, and
Ammon,
who had been the chief god, became the object of
the king's
especial hatred. His very name was forbidden to be
mentioned,
and it was as far as possible chiseled out in
the
temples. But the priesthood appear to have bided
their
time until they could get back their power.
The upheaval was not only in religion, but seems to
have affected the whole life of the people. It is especially
noticeable in art. The old conventual art was abandoned
and an effort
was made to copy directly from nature. The
figures of men and
animals, the foliage of trees, the grouping
of objects, are
all treated in a more natural manner
than ever before in
Egypt.
In 1888 a very interesting discovery was made at Tell
el-Amarna. A peasant woman was searching for antikas
and
came upon a heap of clay tablets. These were found
to be
letters written by the governors of Syrian towns and
rulers of
Mesopotamia to the King of Egypt. A few are
addressed to
Amenhotep III, but most of them came to
Amenhotep IV.
They are written in cuneiform, the arrow-shaped writing
of Assyria and Babylonia. Most of them are in that
language,
indicating that it was the commercial and
diplomatic
language of that day, as French was in Europe
in the last
century. A Syrian wrote to an Egyptian in
Assyrian, a
language foreign to both of them. So a Russian
might
write to a German and use French as a common
language.
Some of them are written in cuneiform, but are
in a local
language called Mitani, which we cannot
understand.
We can read it but cannot translate it. This
is the first
example of transliteration, or using the written
characters
of one language for another. Probably the
Mitani had no
system of writing and were therefore obliged to
use that
of their neighbors.
These letters give us an interesting view of the state of
Syria and Palestine at that time. They
show that the
country was restless and that local chieftains
were beginning
to assert themselves against the power of
Egypt.
The Egyptian governors ask for help, which
apparently
could not be sent them. Amenhotep was deeply
engaged
in his reforms at home.
Some of them treat of marriages and the exchange of
gifts between
the King of Egypt and the kings of Mesopotamia.
Dushratta,
King of Mitani, writes Amenhotep III
that he hopes his brother
the King of Egypt is well and
that his family and household
are well and prospering.
He would be glad to give his daughter
to the King of Egypt
but she is not old enough for marriage.
There is also the
question of dowry to be settled. Their
fathers were great
friends and used to send gifts to each
other. Now they
are ten times as good friends as their fathers
were. Consequently
the gifts ought to increase
proportionately. The
gods have made gold as plentiful as dust
in the land of
Egypt. Dushratta hopes they will make it ten
times as
plentiful. But it is very scarce in his country.
Moreover,
he is building a temple and is short of funds.
When the
messenger comes back he will ask if they bring enough
gold,
and the answer may be “There is enough,” or it may
be
“There is more than enough,” and in that case
Dushratta
will rejoice exceedingly. There is much more in
the
same strain. He closes by expressing the hope that he
has
not offended his brother the King of Egypt by asking
indirectly
for a present, but he also hopes that his
brother will
not offend him by sending a small present. Such a
politely
worded begging epistle might be sent to-day from
the same
region.
The site of the palace of Khu-en-aten was discovered by
Prof. Petrie in 1892. The pictures on the floor are very
fine, and remind us of the Greek and Roman mosaic work
many centuries later. This is the only existing example
of such work except in temples or tombs and gives us an
idea of the splendor of Khuenaten's palace, making us
think of the great royal palaces at
Thebes which, excepting
that of Ramses
III at Medinet Habu, have entirely disappeared.
THE PYRAMID AT MEDUM
In the mountains back of the plain are the tombs. We
did not have time to visit them on this trip. I have seen
them on an earlier voyage. They are interesting, both on
account of the change in style of drawing and sculpture
which
they exhibit and because of the reverence to the
sun-god and
the absence of the other deities who are so
familiar in the
other tombs of the period. Each tomb had
a fore-court,
surrounded by a brick wall, from which one
enters the
vestibule and from which in turn a corridor leads
to the
sarcophagus chamber.
The tomb of Khuenaten himself is in a lonely valley
about six miles to the eastward. It resembles the tombs of
the
kings at the
Biban el Muluk, with, of
course, the new
religion the prominent feature.
Our last day on the river passes quickly and quietly.
We go rapidly by the villages which I have already noticed
on the way up. Our view of the pyramid of Medum in
the late
afternoon is especially fine, and again I wish we
could visit
it. A stop of three hours would probably give
sufficient time,
and it would not injure either the passengers
or the company
to have the Puritan arrive a little later
to-morrow at
Cairo.
I find that we are going to make a good run and begin
to question if there may not be some way by which I can
get
up to
Cairo to-night. Word gets to the
rais and to
the engineer that I shall be much pleased if we
tie up opposite
Helwan. A little later I see the rais. He
tells me
that he is going to run to that point and that he
does it
on purpose for me. He adds that he does not care
whether he gets any bakshish for it or not. This is a
very broad way of hinting that a bakshish and a good
one would be very acceptable.
We make fast during the dinner and soon afterward I
start with
three sailors to walk to
Helwan. One man
is
necessary to carry a lantern and find the way;
another
comes to drive off the dogs and to carry my
valise; the
third is not needed but comes uninvited and
unwanted
in hope of bakshish. When we get to the railroad
station
at
Helwan I
produce six piasters, two for each man. This
is about
equivalent to half a day's pay for each. They
have walked
about an hour with me, but this seems to them
a small bakshish
or rather they had expected a large one,
so they return it to
me saying that it is not enough. Now
I know that it is ample
and, moreover, I never change the
bakshish. So it goes back
into my pocket. Repentance
and the train come simultaneously
and the men have
barely time to ask humbly for it before I am
off for
Cairo.
The next morning promptly at ten o'clock the “Puritan”
comes in with everybody glad to be back in
Cairo and full of enthusiasm over the
Nile trip.
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CHAPTER XIV
THE CAIRO MUSEUM
HAVING now been up the river,
seen the principal
temples and tombs, and learned at least
something
of the history and life of the people, we can
visit
the museum with some foundational knowledge. We
have
also become somewhat familiar with the principal
technical
terms used by Egyptologists.
I have already mentioned the French expedition of
Napoleon. It failed from a military standpoint, but the
results to the world of learning perhaps compensated
even the
French nation for its non-success. The French
thus gained such
a start and prestige in the field of Egyptology
that they have
held the foremost place there until very
recently. Even now,
after twenty years of English rule,
they cannot be said to
take the second place. Their position
was strengthened by the
fact that a Frenchman,
Champollion, discovered the secret of
the hieroglyphs, and
also by the influence of such men as De
Lesseps and
others who exploited and developed the country to
the
advantage of the world and themselves.
In the first part of the last century there was no idea of
keeping the treasures of the old empire in Egypt. Nobody
cared for them and foreign scholars had no difficulty in
getting whatever they wanted for their museums. Private
tourists bought or took possession of anything that came
in their way. Even the sarcophagus of Seti I fell into
private hands and is now in the Soane Museum at London.
In 1863 the
Khedive Isma il gave Mariette sole authority
to excavate in
Egypt. Then in 1878 Mariette founded
the Egyptian Museum. It
was first established at
Bulaq and therefore is often referred to as the
Bulaq Museum.
In 1889 it was moved to
the palace of
Gizeh. This was
not a suitable place, though far superior to
Bulaq. A
large fireproof
building, constructed expressly for it, was
finished in 1902
and is now the home of the greatest and
most valuable
collection of Egyptian antiquities in the world.
The general arrangement is chronological, the heavier
stone objects being on the ground floor while the smaller
and lighter things are upstairs. The catalogue, written
by
Prof. Maspero, is not merely a list, but gives such a
description of the various articles and their uses that the
visitor is enabled to view them with some degree of understanding.
In the museum, as on our river journey, I
advise the visitor to see the most important things carefully
and well rather than to try to see everything. Those
who
choose the latter usually come out of the building
with little
more actual knowledge than they took in. I
call your
attention, therefore, to a few of the great treasures.
Other
objects such as stelæ, sarcophagi and funeral furniture
we may
notice collectively, not individually.
After entering, we turn to the left and pass through the
vestibule corridor. The first six rooms, A to F, contain
the monuments of the Ancient Empire, especially of the
fourth, fifth, and sixth dynasties. Most of them came
from the cemeteries of
Gizeh,
Saqqara, Medum, and
Abydos. There are many interesting things
in room A,
but I call attention only to Nos. 63 and 64. These
are the
two libation tables made of alabaster marble and found
in
a tomb of the third dynasty at
Saqqara. The workmanship
is excellent
and was not surpassed in later times.
Yet these
were not found in a royal tomb, but in one of
those belonging
to the nobility, and probably were not
considered of unusual
worth. Therefore, if they are to
be regarded as ordinary and
typical of the time, we see at
once to what a high standard
artists had attained and that
their best productions could be
sufficiently widespread to
reach the upper classes of the
people.
Passing on to room B, we find ourselves in the most
important and interesting room of the museum if we may
so
speak of any one room. I have already spoken of No.
73, the
diorite statue of King
Khafra. He is
worthy of
another visit. He sits there with the same eager
intent
look which he has worn for nearly six thousand
years.
Khafra was the centre of the great trio
of pyramid-builders
and perhaps the greatest ruler of the
early empire. Like
Ramses he had a long reign—sixty-three
years—and devoted
himself to the winning of glory as a builder
rather
than a warrior. The
second pyramid is his monument
to-day, but we can
at least imagine him as the founder of
temples which have
perished or have been so rebuilt and
enlarged by later
pharaohs that his name in connection
with them has been
forgotten. We must try to imagine
that time when this statue
was new and occupied the
place of honor for which it was
designed. The pyramids
were new, the third one not yet
started. None of the
temples that we have seen was yet even
planned. Surely
this statue, like its neighbor and possible
contemporary,
the
Sphinx, could tell much if it could only speak.
In a corner is the famous wooden figure known as the
Sheikh el Beled, which means village chief. This was
found
a few years ago in a tomb at
Saqqara. It
chanced
that it bore a striking resemblance to one of the
village
sheikhs, so the workmen at once named it.
Moreover,
the air of
prosperity and contentment, the authority represented
by a
stick in his hand, was typical of the local headman
in the
time of the fourth dynasty, is now, and has
been through the
intervening ages. We are not surprised
to find a diorite
statue, such as that of King
Khafra,
six
thousand years old. But here is a wooden one of the
same period, even a trifle older. Truly the preservative
qualities of the Egyptian climate have no equal elsewhere.
In another corner is a squatting statue of a scribe in
limestone. The most famous example of the kind is in
the Louvre at Paris. But this is worthy to be ranked as a
masterpiece of Egyptian art. The man is squatting in
Oriental fashion just as he would do to-day, with a piece
of papyrus spread out on his knees. Like the two statues
just described, the expression of the features and the
bold accurate modeling are especially noteworthy. These
three figures, as well as several others in this and
neighboring
rooms, show a striving after naturalness which
contrasts
strongly with the usual idea of the
conventionality of
Egyptian art based upon the sculptured
reliefs in some
of the tombs.
Having seen the features of
Khafra it is interesting to
look at No. 76, the statue
of Menkaura, the builder of the
third pyramid. There is,
unfortunately, no marked
statue of Khufu, except a small one
of ivory, found at
Abydos (No. 1700), in the North Hall
upstairs. Maspero
thinks he may possibly be No. 80. If so, we
have the
three
great
pyramid-builders together in this room.
In room C there is little to detain the lay visitor. We
may glance at No. 127, the fragment of a statue of Minu,
the local god of the city of
Coptos. Mr. Maspero assigns
it to the second or
third dynasty and thinks it may be the
oldest statue in the
museum.
We may also pass quickly through the next room.
Having seen examples of the beautiful work of the early
artists, we look with surprise at the statues of Sennofer
and
his wife. They are crudely made, awkward, and
entirely out of
proportion. One is tempted to think they
are caricatures.
Surely no man who could have a statue
like that of the scribe
whom we have just seen would
tolerate such a monstrosity. If
it were not certain that
they belong to the fourth dynasty we
should assign them
to one of the dark periods of art such as
the ninth and
eleventh dynasties.
The limestone stela with the history of Una is one of
the most valuable monuments in the museum. It was
found in
his tomb at
Abydos. Una led a busy and
successful
life and he gives us a very good account of it.
He
began his career as page to King Teta, the first ruler
of
the sixth dynasty (3500
B.C.). He soon graduated from
this
and held various important offices, such as supervisor
of the
pyramid priests and local magistrate. King Pepi
I esteemed him
so highly that he gave him the stone for
his tomb at
Abydos from the royal quarries at Turra.
He
was given command of a great army and sent to
chastise
the Bedawin towards the East. He looked upon this
as
the crowning achievement of his career. He was made
governor of the south country. King Merenra intrusted
to him the building of his pyramid. Such is the history
of a high official of the sixth dynasty.
In room F we have the two beautiful statues of Rahotep
and his wife, the princess Nefert. They were found in
Rahotep's tomb in the necropolis of Medum and are
assigned to the third dynasty. Every one admires these
figures. The man is squarely built and thickset. His
face beams with intelligence and activity. Some
authorities
see
indications that he was of humble birth. That
may be, but the
whole figure shows a man of force of
character and active
temperament. The princess was
evidently a lady of noble birth
and endowed with beauty
of the highest Egyptian type. Her face
wears an expression
of quiet dignity. Notice how her wig is
laid on her
head and held in place by a ribbon. Her own hair
is seen
beneath it. She wears a closely fitting robe, cut as
low
as would be fashionable to-day. Beneath it are seen
the
outlines of her form, modelled most gracefully and
naturally.
Rahotep is painted a reddish-brown, while
Nefert
is much lighter, almost a tawny buff. These
statues
excite the wonder and admiration of the visitor
and are
worthy of careful attention and study.
In a corner is the bronze statue of Pepi I, found in 1897
at Kom el-Ahmar. It is the oldest work of the kind in
the world and shows the same high attainments of the
artist as is shown by the stone statues. The face, hands,
and feet were cast, while the body and limbs are made of
copper plates beaten into shape with a hammer. The
whole was then riveted and welded together. There was
evidently a tunic or kilt of gold or possibly electrum
which has long since disappeared. The eyes are inlaid
enamel and give a very lifelike expression to the figure.
The early Egyptian artists were especially careful to get
the eyes as natural as possible, a fact which we have
probably noticed in the statues already described. The
smaller figure may be another one of Pepi or may represent
one of his sons.
We may glance at the statue of Ti brought from his
tomb at
Saqqara. It is not of especially
fine workmanship,
but is interesting because we have seen his
tomb
and the representations there.
We have now finished with the monuments of the
Ancient Empire. We could stay here much longer with
interest
and advantage. But we must not disproportion
our time. Those
of us who are able can come again and
see the rest at leisure.
But no matter how many visits
one may make, I doubt if he ever
becomes able to pass
these early masterpieces without having
his thought and
attention insensibly drawn to them.
We have now seen a great deal, all of supreme interest.
If that inexorable demon, Time, did not have his grip on
us, I should advise confining ourselves to these rooms for
one visit, for they form a complete portion of the museum
and furnish ample material for thought and study.
We now pass on to the Middle Empire. Room G is filled
with stelæ from tombs of this period. Interesting though
these are and full of information for the Egyptologist, I
fear
that the ordinary visitor will find little to attract his
attention.
In the centre of the next room is a wooden statue of a
king of the thirteenth dynasty. This is a typical Ka
statue entirely nude and with the Ka sign over the head.
We also have the pleasure of looking at the features of
one of the greatest kings of Egypt, Amenemhat III of the
twelfth dynasty. He shows a very different type of
features
from those of King
Khafra. Thirteen hundred
years have
passed away and Amenemhat is a member of
a different family of
rulers. The prominent cheekbones
are noticeable and have led
scholars to believe that the
statues with this feature
formerly attributed to the Hyksos
should be assigned to this
king and dynasty.
In the next room we have the tomb of Harhotep, a noble
of the New Empire. It reminds us of the tomb of Nakht;
and had we not seen that and others at
Thebes, this would
give us a
good idea of them. Instead of putting plaster
on the
rock-walls of the tomb and then painting thereon,
Harhotep had
his tomb excavated and then built up with
limestone blocks on
which the artist did his work. So it
was easy to transport the
blocks to
Cairo and rebuild the
tomb in the museum exactly as it was originally at
Thebes.
Around the walls are ten seated statues of Usertesen I.
They are of limestone and were found on the south side of
his pyramid. They were apparently buried soon after
they were made; in fact they are not completely finished.
Only one of them has the proper smiling expression; the
artists were evidently unable to finish the others.
Room L is filled with sphinxes and statues which have
been thought to belong to the time of the Hyksos kings.
There are evidences that they are rather earlier, perhaps
from
the twelfth dynasty.
Then we come to the New Empire, called in the museum
catalogue the Second Theban Empire. The energy of
this
period seems to have been expended in the building of
temples
and huge colossi. We have no small works of
art which can be
compared with the things we have just
seen from the earlier
dynasties, and what we do have is in
even more ruinous
condition. Moreover, we have become
somewhat weary physically
and mentally. One cannot
see and appreciate anything when this
stage is reached.
No matter how interesting a museum or
picture-gallery
may be, a couple of hours are, I think,
all the time that it is
wise to stay at one time. We must
rapidly go through the
remaining rooms on the ground floor,
noticing the principal
objects.
No. 285 is a statue of Merenptah, the pharaoh of the
Exodus. The black granite statue No. 291 was supposed
by
Mariette to belong also to this pharaoh, but Maspero
thinks it
represents Horemheb, the priest-king who closed
the eighteenth
dynasty. At all events it is a very fine
piece of work. The
stela of black granite numbered
300 contains the poem in which
Ammon is represented
as giving the victory over the peoples of
Syria and Ethiopia
to Thuthmes III. It is of considerable historical importance.
No. 315 adds the great Thuthmes III to our
gallery of the
pharaohs. No. 322 is Thuthmes IV. The
monuments on the western
wall representing Khuenaten,
the heretic-king of the
eighteenth dynasty, adoring the
sun, are important and
interesting.
In the north portico we must notice the two colossal
statues of the god Ptah erected by Ramses II at
Memphis.
Maspero calls them the most
remarkable divine statues
ever found in Egypt.
Passing rapidly on to room X we come to the monuments
from Ethiopia, from Napata at the foot of Gebel Barkal.
The kings of Ethiopia or of Napata, as they are sometimes
called, ruled Egypt for about two hundred years,
from the middle of the eighth century before Christ. Their
most famous king was Taharqa, who is frequently mentioned
in the Hebrew scriptures and in the Assyrian
chronicles. His head is seen here (No. 689). The five
stelæ
from Gebel Barkal are interesting on account of
their
information.
The monuments of the Græco-Roman period would
excite our interest and attention if they were in another
building or if we were not so full of the sight and thought
of
the real Egypt of the Egyptians. So we pass hurriedly
by them.
No. 725, however, the Tanitic copy of the
Decree of
Canopus, should be noticed, and some will
also
be interested in the remains from the early
Christian
period and the sarcophagi of the Ptolemaic
period.
Before leaving we must see the two large boats in the
portico of the four pillars. They were used to convey the
mummy and funeral procession of the Pharaoh Autuabra
Horus of
the thirteenth dynasty and were afterward
buried at his
pyramid. They remind one of the famous
viking ships at
Christiania, but are four times as old.
Again we wonder at the
remarkable preservation of wood.
These boats look as if they
might be serviceable to-day.
Our second visit to the museum is devoted to the upper
floor. This is filled with the smaller and lighter
objects.
Most of them were found in tombs. Small and
valuable
objects were preserved only in tombs, for the
temples were
the first to be plundered of their treasures by
conquering
armies, and then when abandoned by the priests
the
lower class of spoilers took everything movable
which
possessed any value in their eyes. The tombs were
also
often found and despoiled by robbers even in very
early
times. But much that is very precious from the
museum
standpoint had no value to them. To-day the craze
of
the tourist for a souvenir gives a fictitious value
even to a
piece of dirty mummy cloth or a fragment of a
mummified
cat.
We have seen many tombs of various periods in our
journey on the river. But all were empty of what we may
call
the usual funeral furniture. The tomb of Amenhotep
II in the
Biban el Muluk at
Thebes still has the mummy
of the king
in his sarcophagus, and some others still retain
the
sarcophagus. Small articles had to be taken to the
museum for
safety. Moreover, they can be examined and
studied much better
there.
The most important thing in a tomb is the mummy.
The Egyptian believed that the Ka and the soul would
return to
the body in the distant future and that its preservation
was most
necessary. Even in the earliest historical
times some attempt
was made to preserve the body with
preparations of bitumen,
natron, and similar substances.
The earliest body which we can
call a mummy is that of
Sekerem-saf, son of Pepi I of the
sixth dynasty (3450
B.C.)
now in the British Museum. From that time until the
fourth
century
A.D. the practice of preserving
the bodies
of the dead, as far as they or their friends were
willing
and able to pay for it, was kept up.
There were three methods of embalming. The best
and
most expensive was naturally only used for kings and
the
nobility. The brain and other organs were removed,
and the
body placed in a tank filled with a solution of
natron. After
some days it was taken out and the cavities
filled with spices
and preservatives. Then it was carefully
wrapped in linen
bandages and was ready for the
burial. The whole process
required seventy days. There
were less expensive and less
efficacious methods for those
of lower station. The very poor
had to content themselves
with the simplest and cheapest
method. But all
tried as far as possible to preserve their
body that their
soul might some day return to it, and they
devoted all
their energies and savings to this end. In like
manner,
our own poor people to-day save every penny in
order that
they may have an elaborate burial.
The mummies of various periods and of different
localities have their own characteristics and are easily
recognizable by the Egyptologist. The best preserved
are those
from
Thebes at the time of the eighteenth
and
nineteenth dynasties. Some of them are perfect
after
more than three thousand years. Many of them have
suffered from the violence of the grave-robbers. Others,
strange to say, have perished within the last few years
from neglect.
The mummy of the great Queen Nefertari
was left for four years
in the damp atmosphere of
Bulaq and then had to be buried because it was decomposing.
That of Aahmes I, the father of his country, who drove
out the Hyksos and reëstablished the independence of
Egypt, is faring little better. The museum catalogue
complacently announces that it has suffered a great deal
from insects while in the museum. It seems that the
recovery of the bodies of the ancient pharaohs sometimes
means their destruction, not their preservation. In that
case it would be better to rebury them, of course taking
good care to protect them from robbers. No one has the
welfare of the museum and the preservation of its
treasures
more at heart than the present authorities, and
they can
be trusted to do their best.
We go first to room P, where are the royal mummies of
the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties found in 1881 at
Der el-Bahri and in 1898 in the tomb of Amenhotep II.
It is
wonderful to look upon the actual faces and bodies of
the
great pharaohs, the builders of the temples and tombs
which we
have just seen.
The first is Seqenenra, one of the last kings of the
seventeenth dynasty. He fell in battle, probably fighting
the Hyksos. Then comes Aahmes I and his son Amenhotep
I.
Thuthmes II follows. Near by is the mummy
of Thuthmes III, the
great warrior-king. It had been
badly damaged by spoilers but
there is no doubt of its
genuineness. Seti I and his famous
son Ramses II are
there also. Our interest in these three
distinguished men
is so great that we must concentrate
ourselves and our
time on them.
Thuthmes III was short in stature—not over five feet
three inches in height. At first sight he does not look
THE COLOSSI OF
MEMNON
especially
distinguished. But a closer examination shows
a man of
activity and energy and we can well believe that
he was the
man who planned and carried out the great
military campaigns
of his reign and directed the building
and restoration of
temples throughout the land. The
attention of the visitor is
apt to be given entirely to Ramses
the Great, with perhaps a
little notice to Seti merely
because he was Ramses's father.
But Thuthmes was
certainly the greatest conqueror that Egypt
ever produced,
and his work established the great empire which
lasted
through his own and the following dynasty.
Seti I rests as peacefully in the glass case as he did in
his magnificent tomb in the
Biban el Muluk. It is to be
hoped that his soul is
happy in the lower world and does
not suffer from the
ignorance of the mystic formulas
painted in the tomb. His
mummy is one of the best
preserved, and apparently will last
for all time.
Ramses's face is well known to the world from his
statues and from the pictures of his mummy. He was a
tall man
and must have measured full six feet in his prime.
Egyptologists used to think that he attained a great age
and
nearly reached the century mark. Prof. Petrie, in
his latest
book, makes him eighteen at his accession, eighy-four
at his
death.
Other royal mummies in this room are Ramses III,
Merenptah, the supposed pharaoh of the Exodus, Seti
Merenptah,
and Amenhotep III. Ramses IV and Thuthmes
IV are in the next
room (Q). Ramses I and Seti II
are in room R. Thuthmes I is at
the head of the northwest
staircase (No. 1216). In gallery O
are some late
mummies most of which were found in the
Fayum. They
are
accompanied by a portrait of the deceased. In modern
Italian
cemeteries it is also customary to place a
photograph of
the dead over the tomb, that the survivors
may still see the
familiar features.
When Christianity became firmly established in Egypt,
the practice of embalming the body gradually died away,
for
Christianity taught the resurrection of the body, hence
it was
unnecessary to preserve it.
The ancient Egyptians even went so far as to embalm
animals, especially those that they considered sacred.
These
can be seen in Room D.
Each mummy had its coffin. There were usually two,
an inner and an outer one. The royal coffins are near
the
mummies to which they belonged. In the main
gallery we have a
number of coffins and mummies of
priests which were found in
1891, at Der el-Bahri.
It is interesting to notice that many coffins were used
again for a later occupant. They were often stolen by
grave-robbers and sold to the funeral directors, who
disposed
of them to their customers.
The designs on coffins are very interesting, but would
take too much time from other more important things.
There are quite a number of sarcophagi in the museum,
and we have also seen some in the tombs. They were
usually
made of stone and of two solid pieces, the body
and the lid.
Sometimes one was built up of blocks of
stone as in the Theban
tomb on the lower floor (No. 206).
A fine sarcophagus was
quite expensive and sometimes
the pharaoh gave one to a
favorite noble or general as a
mark of especial favor. When
the mummy was placed
inside it was securely sealed, taken to
the innermost chamber
of the tomb, and left there to await the
reunion of the
soul and the body.
The viscera which were taken out of the body were
sometimes replaced, but were more often placed in what
are known as
canopic jars. There were four of these,
each dedicated to a
son of Horus and representing also
one of the cardinal points
of the compass. They will be
found in room E.
Mestha or Amset had a human head and represented the
south. It contained the stomach and large intestines.
Hapi,
the dog-headed deity of the north, had the small
intestines.
Tuamautef, with the jackal head reminding
us of Anubis,
received the heart and lungs and was the
lord of the east.
Then Qebhsennuf, with the hawk's
head, god of the west, got
the liver. The most interesting
set of these came from the
pyramids of Lisht and
Dahshur and is now in cases C and D in room E.
Among the most common articles of funeral furniture
are the little statues known as ushabti or “answerers.”
It is
supposed that they were intended to act as servants
to the
deceased in the next world and to answer for him
when he was
called on for labor. Before the eighteenth
dynasty they were
usually made of wood or stone. At
that time terra-cotta
covered with blue enamel became
the fashion. Still later they
are made of green terra-cotta.
They are usually inscribed with
a short formula
such as “I am … the servant in the
under-world” or
“If Aahmes is called to work in the
under-world, do thou
cry 'Here I am.'” Sometimes we find the
entire sixth
chapter of the Book of the Dead. Of course, the
more a
man had of these servants the pleasanter his position
in
the next world. They were often placed in the
sarcophagus-chamber.
Boxes full of them were piled up
in
the tomb. The collection will be found in the
doorway
leading to room D.
The scarab is the most popular with the tourist of these
small funeral ornaments. The demand has become so
great of late
years that it is now quite difficult to get a
genuine one. The
forgers of
Luxor devote themselves
especially to their manufacture, and have become so
skilful
that it is next to impossible to distinguish the
modern
imitation from the real article. I have known the
best
authorities at
Luxor to disagree on some specimens shown
to them. The
forgers use the same materials as the
ancients and even make
them from the original moulds.
Then the appearance of
antiquity is obtained by burying
them for a time.
The scarab is the image of the common black beetle
which we see so often on the edge of the desert. This
insect
lays its eggs in balls of dung and they in due time
produce
the young beetles, in the eyes of the unscientific
observer,
from nothing. The Egyptian regarded that as
typical of
immortality.
It would require a whole volume to describe the different
varieties of scarabs. The collection in the museum is
placed in Room V. They are, of course, all genuine, and
in fact most of them came directly from the tombs.
They were not only placed with the dead, but were
largely used as ornaments by the living. The custom
spread to
Syria and Assyria as well as to
Greece and Rome.
We find them made of various materials, such
as stone,
glass, ivory, glazed pottery, and even of bone or
metal.
There are three principal classes of scarabs. Those
used for the dead are called funeral scarabs. Several of
them
were usually placed with the mummy. Some which
were known as
heart scarabs are very large, often six inches
or more in
length. They are usually inscribed either with
the name and
titles of the deceased or, more frequently,
with the twentieth
chapter of the Book of the Dead.
By far the larger number of scarabs which have been
found belong
to the class known as ornamental scarabs.
These also were
found in tombs, for it was the custom to
place there much of
the personal property of the dead.
They are of varying size
and of all sorts of material.
They often bore the name of a
famous king even of the
early dynasties which had passed away
long before. So
we find Seneferu, Khufu,
Khafra, and others on scarabs
made in
the early part of the New Empire, and also
others with the
names of the great kings of the twelfth and
eighteenth
dynasties, who of course had nothing to do
with them.
Another class is called historical scarabs. There are
four of these, all of the time of Amenhotep III. Each
has a
long inscription narrating and commemorating an
event of his
reign, very like our medals of to-day. One
was engraved in
honor of his marriage with Queen Tyi,
another tells of his
prowess in slaying one hundred and
two lions, and the others
refer to other events.
The Egyptians were devout believers in magic, so
they had numerous amulets. These, like the scarabs,
were made
of various materials and worn as ornaments
by the living as
well as placed with the dead, on account
of their magic power.
There were figures of the key of
life, called the ankh, the
buckle, the pillar known at the
tet, the eye, the collar, the
sceptre, the heart, the vulture,
and many others. Figures of
gods and even of men and
animals are often found. Little cones
of baked clay are
supposed to represent loaves of bread the
sight of which
would in some magical way furnish sustenance to
the
hungry Ka.
The dead man needed some spirtiual guide-book of
information, so copies of the Book of the Dead, more or
less
complete, were placed in the coffin. Copies of this
and other
papyri can be seen in Room G. The
Cairo Museum is rather poor in ancient books. The
British
Museum, the Bibliothèque Nationale, and the museum
at
Turin have the best collection.
I must not forget to mention the stelæ, most of which
are on the ground floor. They are found in the earliest
tombs and were in use down to a very late period. In
later
times, in the case of the kings, they were often placed
in the
funeral temple which we have seen corresponded
to the front
chamber of an ordinary tomb. They generally
contain an account
of the life of the deceased and of
course mention any
important public events with which
he may have been connected.
So much valuable historical
information has been furnished by
these stelæ.
Besides these articles of a funeral or memorial nature,
all kinds of small objects, especially those intended for
personal use or actually used by the departed, were buried
in the tomb. Toilet articles such as vases, mirrors,
combs,
ointment pots, furniture, chairs, and even chariots
have
been found. Models, almost toys, representing
boats,
houses, and similar property of the dead are
common,
especially in the time of the Middle Empire and
earlier.
In fact, there is nothing which could have
belonged to an
Egyptian which is not found in the tombs,
either the
actual article, its model, or at least a picture
representing
it.
Having now called attention to the different classes of
articles found in the tombs and exhibited in the upper
floor
of the museum, I will mention a few objects which
deserve
especial notice. We have already seen the royal
mummies.
Let us go now to Room D. Here are the articles
found
in the ancient royal tombs at Umm el Ga'ab near
Abydos.
Prof.
Petrie thinks that these tombs belonged to a dynasty
of kings
which immediately preceded Mena. Maspero
does not accept this
view and assigns all these kings to
the three dynasties of
Manetho. At all events, these
tombs and the articles found in
them belonged to a very
early period, before the pyramids.
In Room V is the picture of some geese feeding. It
was taken from a tomb at Medum and belongs to the third
dynasty. It is one of the oldest and finest examples of
Egyptian painting.
In the next room (Y) are objects from the Middle
Empire, most of them from the tombs near
Assiut. The
two platoons of soldiers, Nos. 1337 and
1338, came from a
tomb on the hill back of
Assiut. On our Nile voyage we
saw the
tomb there known as the soldier's tomb from the
paintings on
the wall. This man preferred to have a
model to represent his
company. If such a group of
figures was to be made to-day, in
this mechanical age, we
would make a mould and cast them all
exactly alike. It
would be easy for us to make thousands. But
here every
man is different, giving ground for the supposition
that
they were actually from the originals, the members of
the
prince's body-guard. Some are short, others tall;
each
looks alive and ready to march at once, or rather is
actually
on the march. Each company numbers forty and
is
formed of four files of ten men. The spearmen have
spears somewhat longer than their own height, and ox-hide
shields. Each shield had its owner's coat of arms.
These spearmen were all true Egyptians, as can be readily
seen from their forms and features.
The bowmen are shorter and darker, almost negroes.
They were probably from the Libyan tribes of the neighboring
desert and oases. They show much greater
variety of height and
build than the spearmen; perhaps
they were
recruited from different tribes. They have no
shield and are
armed only with the bow, which they carry
in the left hand,
while in the right each had four arrows
with heads of bone or
flint. The absence of quivers is
noteworthy, for they were
unknown in Egypt until after
the expulsion of the Hyksos.
No. 1339 is a funeral boat, found in the same tomb.
It represents the ordinary type of pleasure boat in use on
the
Nile at that time, the ancient dahabiyeh. The prince
sits in
his cabin with five other figures, friends or attendants.
The
pilot in the bow with his outstretched hand is
very natural.
Returning to the south hall we must examine the body
of the war-chariot of Thuthmes IV, found in his tomb in
1903. Until then, the chariot in the Florence Museum
was the
only example which had come to light. The
model of that one is
placed here so that we may compare
them. As this is the frame,
while that of Thothmes is
only the body, we may get an idea of
the complete chariot
from the composite picture. It was
originally covered
with gold-leaf, but this was stripped off
by robbers. The
reliefs are fine, exactly the same as those we
have seen on
the temples, but reduced to a small scale and
very delicately
drawn. On the outside, on the right, the king
is rushing
against the enemy in his chariot; on the other side
he is
grasping a group of enemies by the hair and raising
his
battle-ax to slay them. On the inside are lists of
conquered
tribes, the Asiatics on the left, the negroes on
the
right.
Another chariot has lately been found in the tomb of
the parents of Queen Tyi. I have not yet seen it, but
reports describe it as complete and in excellent preservation.
It is a gala chariot, not one for use in battle.
With these
three specimens and the pictures in temples
and tombs we can
form a very good idea of them.
At the eastern end of the hall, in Case H, is a very fine
glazed vase which was originally a present from Amenhotep
III to his queen Tyi. It is an exquisite piece of work,
and interesting because of the royal pair who once owned it.
Lastly we go to the jewel-room. Fortunately, the most
valuable and extensive finds of jewelry were made recently
after Egypt had decided to carefully keep the most important
things for her own museum and not to allow
them to be taken
away to Europe as formerly. So we
have here a fine collection
of gold and silver ornaments
as well as jewels, illustrating
Egyptian art in that department
from the earliest times even
to the Arab conquest.
All the cases in this room are of great interest. I can
only call attention here to some of the most important
objects, and must leave the visitor to examine the rest
with the aid of the catalogue.
There are two great treasure finds in this room. The
treasure of Queen Aahhotep was accidentally found by
natives in 1860 at
Thebes. She was the
queen of Seqenenra
and mother of Nefertari. Much of the
jewelry has
the name of Aahmes I, the first king of the
eighteenth
dynasty, and who may have been her son. It is
exhibited
in Case F. We should study especially the ax,
the
dagger, the two boats, one of gold and the other of
silver,
and the beautiful gold chain. This chain has a
scarab,
made of gold and blue glaze, which is considered
by experts
to be the finest scarab yet discovered. The golden
boat
bears the name of Kames, her eldest son, and one of
the
last kings of the seventeenth dynasty. No finer work
was
ever done in Egypt, and it is remarkable that it
comes
from a period
immediately after the rule of the Hyksos—
in fact, from the
very time of the wars for freedom. It
causes one to think that
possibly the Hyksos times may
not have been as utterly
barbarous and devoid of art and
artists as has been supposed.
In 1894, M. de Morgan came upon two royal treasures
while excavating at
Dahshur. These
belonged to princesses
of the twelfth dynasty, the beginning
of the Middle
Empire (2600
B.C.). They are placed in Case A. The
most
interesting and characteristic pieces are the two
pectorals
made of gold and inlaid with jewels. The one
on the right
bears the name of Usertesen III, that on the
left has
Amenemhat III. The former has two lions with
the heads of
Mont, the god of war, surmounted by the
feathers of truth.
With waving tails they trample upon
the enemy. A vulture
hovers over the scene. It is truly
Egyptian, harmonizing
marvelously with the temples
and tombs of that and other
periods. The other shows
Amenemhat raising his mace to strike
a kneeling captive,
who begs for mercy.
Case I contains interesting bracelets and other articles
from Roman and Byzantine times.
We have now finished our survey of the museum and
accomplished considerable for two visits. More time
could be
spent to advantage in every section, even in every
room. In
any case, whether one has only a week in
Cairo or spends the season there, I recommend that
the first
visits be as here outlined. Those with ample time
can
then carry forward the study of those things which
most interest
them. But the study and knowledge of the
history
of the country and of its religion, as it is
gradually being
revealed by new discoveries and by the patient
investigations
of scholars, must go hand in hand with the
visits to
the museum if
one wishes to get beyond the position of a
mere admiring
sightseer.
It is interesting to note the changes in growth of the
museum in the last few years. I
saw it for the first time
in 1892,
thirteen years ago. Many of the most important
things had not
been found and others were not yet exhibited
to the public. A
great deal has been discovered in
the few years of this
century and important finds are made
every season. Hence the
necessity for constantly revising
our ideas on the history and
the religion, which compels
an Egyptologist, scholar or
student, to keep on the alert,
and makes only the latest works
of the best authorities
trustworthy reading for the general
public.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER XV
A CHAPTER OF HISTORY
AT first thought it seems
absurd to attempt to give an
idea of the history of Egypt in a
single chapter.
But it is almost equally hopeless for the
tourist, a
business or professional man from America or
England, to
read understandingly the standard and voluminous
histories.
Some of them are so out of date that their
own
authors would not hold the same opinions now.
Others
have some pet theory to prove and therefore should
not be
read without foreknowledge and discrimination. As in
the
temples and in the museum, so in the history the
tourist
must seek a broad view and cannot, at least at
first, try to
master the details.
I shall treat the history briefly and in periods. For in
all history, and especially in that of Egypt, certain
epochs
or ages stand out preëminently as the times of
great
national prosperity, followed by periods of relapse
into
darkness and depression.
The historian Manetho begins his list of thirty-one
dynasties of rulers with Mena. The list given by Seti I,
at
Abydos, also begins with him. So it
has become customary
to regard him as the first historic king
and to speak of
the time before him as prehistoric. But we
find the
country in quite an advanced state of civilization in
his
reign, which necessarily required time to develop.
Moreover,
Manetho also says that ten kings of Thinis
reigned
for three
hundred and fifty years before Mena. Recently
explored royal
tombs at
Abydos are thought to belong
to
this dynasty. From articles found in them and in
other
parts of Egypt scholars are slowly and carefully
unfolding
the history of this period. According to
chronology of
Prof. Petrie this dynasty ruled from about 5000
B.C. to
4777
B.C.The thirty-one dynasties of Manetho ruled Egypt for
four thousand four hundred years from Mena to the conquest
by
Alexander the Great. This long period may be
divided into
three parts: The Ancient Empire included
the first eleven
dynasties and covered two thousand years
(B.C. 4777 to B.C. 2778). The Middle Empire extended
from the twelfth
to the end of the seventeenth dynasty
(B.C. 2778 to B.C. 1587). It included the glorious rule of the
twelfth
dynasty and the subjugation of the country to the
race of
foreigners known as the Hyksos. Then the New
Empire began with
the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties,
the greatest age in
Egyptian history, and continued
with diminishing glory until
the coming of Alexander.
Mena owes his fame chiefly to the fact that he had the
first place in the lists of kings and that he founded the
city of
Memphis. His
position as the first king is probably
due to the latter fact.
In later times he was worshipped
as a god.
The first two dynasties were not of marked importance.
We know their names and have discovered the tombs of
most of them. The country was slowly and surely
progressing
toward the high standard of civilization of
the
fourth dynasty.
With the third dynasty we come to our earliest pyramid,
the
Step Pyramid of
Saqqara, probably erected by
Zeser,
the second king. Seneferu, the ninth and last king
of
this dynasty,
built the pyramid of Medum. We feel quite
acquainted with him
and his time, for the necropolis
around his pyramid was filled
with the graves of his nobles,
and the spoil from them enables
us to form a fairly accurate
picture of Egyptian life of the
period. The Egyptian
power began to expand under this dynasty,
as we see by
the inscriptions at Sinai.
The fourth dynasty was the glorious age of the Ancient
Empire, the time of the
great
pyramid-builders. I have
already spoken of their
works and every visitor to Egypt
sees them and gets his own
impressions. But this was
not only the age of the pyramids, it
was also the zenith of
Egypt in art. The position attained was
held through
the two following dynasties. All really fine work
which we
have from the Ancient Empire—pyramids, tombs,
statues,
or jewelry—comes from these three dynasties. The
time
before was a period of development, of study, and
of
progress; the time following was one of sudden and
complete
fall.
After the sixth dynasty there is considerable confusion
in our records for the rest of the Ancient Empire. The
time of the seventh and eighth dynasties may have been
a time of civil war or more probably of a division in the
kingdom, thus making these dynasties contemporary.
In the eleventh dynasty affairs seem to be improving;
the country was getting ready for the Middle Empire.
The twelfth dynasty was the second period of great
prosperity and prominence for Egypt. The skill of the
artist
revived and again reached a high standard. The
list of
monuments of this time is large. The kings were
buried in
pyramid tombs at
Dahshur and in the
Fayum.
The beginning of
the great Temple of
Karnak was made by
Amenemhat I. Other kings of this dynasty also built
temples which
have either totally disappeared or been so
built over in the
time of the New Empire that the later structures
have
overshadowed them. Usertesen I set up the
obelisks at
Heliopolis, one of which is still standing,
the
oldest in Egypt and in the world.
The government was highly organized and internal
affairs of the kingdom were wisely administered. A large
army
was maintained. Some of the kings were great generals.
The
army of Amenemhat I passed the
first
cataract and conquered
Nubia. Probably his son, Usertesen I, was
in command. He pushed the conquest to the second
cataract and built a temple there. Usertesen III fixed the
southern boundary of the kingdom at Wady Halfa and
built the frontier forts at Semneh and Kummeh, thirty
miles farther south, to defend it.
The crest of the wave of prosperity was reached under
Amenemhat III. He had a long reign of forty-four years
and
devoted himself to the internal affairs of the country.
His
great work was the regulation of Lake Moeris. By
means of a
massive dam he held the water back, reclaiming
some forty
square miles of cultivable land. This was
the nucleus of the
Fayum, which has ever since been
one
of the richest provinces of Egypt.
The tombs at Benihasan and at
Aswan date from this
period. Much of our information
thereof comes from
the inscriptions at the former place. The
monarchs buried
there were the trusted generals and officers
of the kings,
and in relating their own history and glorious
deeds unconsciously
tell us of their patrons.
The beginning of the New Empire was perhaps the more
glorious period and the greatest kings belonged to that
time. But I am inclined to think that in true prosperity,
in
works for the welfare and protection of the people and in
encouragement
of industry the time of the twelfth dynasty
had no equal in
Egyptian history.
Immediately after this happy period the country fell
again upon evil times. The next two dynasties were
probably
native and composed of quite a number of kings,
each of whom
had a comparatively short reign and none
of whom was
especially distinguished. At least we have
as yet no evidence
that any of them were men of marked
ability. Then follows the
rule of the Hyksos kings (dynasties
XV and XVI). Much has been
written and conjectured
about them. It has been mostly
supposition,
for we have little or no definite
information. We only
know that they were a race of foreigners,
probably from
the northeast, that is from
Syria or the Sinai peninsular.
They
seem to have held the country as conquerors, and
troubled
themselves little about temple-building or other
great works.
When their power once began to diminish, the princes
of
Thebes kept pushing them northward
to the delta,
where they made their last stand in the
fortified city of
Avaris. They held out here for some time but
finally
surrendered to King Aahmes, who permitted them
to
withdraw to their original home to the east. Aahmes
I
was the conqueror who drove out the Hyksos and
founded
the eighteenth dynasty, the first of the New
Empire. The
final campaigns against the foreigners were
regarded as a
great war for freedom and independence. Aahmes
and
his queen Nefertari were later deified and
worshipped.
He was the George Washington of Egypt.
The period of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties,
roughly from 1600
B.C.
to 1200
B.C., was the time of the
greatness of Egypt. Perhaps the reign of Ramses III,
the first king of the twentieth dynasty, should be
included,
for he was a
great builder and well maintained the position
of his
predecessors. But after him the downfall was rapid
and
unchecked.
In these four centuries we find the building enthusiasm
of king and people at its height. The glory of the fourth
dynasty was the pyramids. Practically all their other
structures above ground have perished. The twelfth dynasty
temples had fallen into ruin under the Hyksos or
survived to be engulfed in the larger plans of the great
temple-builders such as Thuthmes and Ramses. Their
works were so large and so numerous that they have
survived
and form the bulk of what we call the remains
of
Ancient Egypt.
Their military glory was no less. The boundaries of
Egypt were carried southward far beyond the frontier
fortresses of Semneh and Kummeh. Their victorious
armies
marched northward through Palestine and
Syria and even to the Euphrates. East and west the
great
deserts kept them back. Moreover, there was little
to
go for and no one to fight with.
We must treat these kings more in detail, for their names
and works become familiar to every Nile traveler.
After driving out the Hyksos, Aahmes was called to the
extreme southern boundary of the kingdom to repel an
invasion from
Nubia.
Then he had to crush petty uprisings
of the Hyksos people who
had remained in Egypt.
These military operations seem to have
occupied his
reign and allowed him no lesiure for building.
Moreover,
the nation had just emerged from a period of
national
depression, and the first few years of freedom
were necessarily spent in awakening and recovering its strength.
Aahmes did his great work in freeing the country; that is
his monument.
Amenhotep I, the son and successor of Aahmes, carried
on campaigns against the Nubians on the south and the
Libyans on the west. He did some building at
Karnak,
probably restoring and adding to the old
temple of the
twelfth dynasty. He is also supposed to have
built a
temple on the west bank of the river.
Thuthmes I succeeded his father Amenhotep I. There
is some uncertainty about the family relationship here. It
seems that Thuthmes I married his sister Aahmes, and
apparently derived his title to the throne more through
her
than from his royal father. This is best explained by
supposing that his mother, Sensenb, was only a concubine
and
not of royal blood. Prof. Petrie thinks that Queen
Aah-hotep
II had at least two sons and that one of them
commanded the
forces in
Nubia in Thuthmes's fourth
year. It is difficult to understand how this man, if
legitimate
and of royal blood on both sides, could be
peacefully
pushed aside by Thuthmes. But the important
fact for
us and for Egypt is that Thuthmes did become king.
We
know just enough of him and of his works to make us
wish to know more. He led the Egyptian armies through
Syria and set up his tablet in
Naharina—that is, the country
of the two rivers, Mesopotamia.
The way may have been
prepared for him by his father, for he
seems to have met with
little resistance, at least until he
was well into Northern
Syria. In the south he was equally
active, making the
authority of Egypt secure up to the
frontier fortresses of
Semneh and Kummeh and even raiding the
country beyond.
The temple building of the New Empire was really
begun by him, for the work of his father was slight and
unenduring. He extended the
temple of
Ammon at
Karnak, building three pylons in front of
the sanctuary.
He probably
also constructed the colonnades between these
pylons. He set
up a pair of obelisks in front of his large
pylon (No. IV in
Baedeker). The southern one is still
standing, the oldest
obelisk at
Luxor, and, excepting that
of Usertesen I at
Heliopolis, the oldest in Egypt.
Thuthmes II was the son of Thuthmes I by Mutnefert,
a concubine. He married Hatasu to secure his place
on the
throne, for she was of royal blood on both sides.
Thuthmes II
was a weak prince caring little for war or
for building.
Queen Hatasu is the great figure of this time. She was
seven years older than her brother-husband. She had
been associated with her father as co-ruler before his
death
and even some time before her marriage. Nominally
she
did not reign at all alone, being always associated
with
her husband, Thuthmes II, or her nephew, Thuthmes
III.
But she was undoubtedly the real ruler of Egypt for
thirty-five
years from the death of Thuthmes I to her own
decease.
Her reign was a time of peace. Naturally she could not
go to war. Her father had made
Syria and Palestine into
an Egyptian
province. He had so organized the entire
kingdom that Hatasu,
with her great administrative ability,
easily ruled it. Of
course there was a standing army and
probably occasional use
for it in suppressing minor revolts
and keeping order in the
great empire.
Being free from serious war her entire resources were
available for building. The great work of her reign is the
temple known as Der el-Bahri. This temple is unique
and must
have been one of the finest in
Thebes.
The fact
that Thuthmes III completed it or that Thuthmes II
is
represented in it does not take it away from Queen
Hatasu.
Undoubtedly the original design and plan of the
work
was hers.
She set up two great obelisks at
Karnak, one of which is
still standing. The
inscription states that they were quarried,
brought to
Karnak, polished, set up, and inscribed
in the short space of seven months.
Thuthmes III was the great warrior-king. During
Hatasu's life he was held back and could not begin his
career
of war and conquest. The local chieftains in
Southern
Syria and Palestine had become restless
and
broke out in open revolt just before the death of the
queen.
Thuthmes took command of the army and eagerly
hastened
to give battle. At Megiddo, on the edge of the
plain of Esdraelon, the armies met and Thuthmes utterly
defeated the Syrian Confederacy. Henceforth nearly every
year found him fighting, usually in
Syria. He pushed his
conquests to
Naharina, to the banks of the Euphrates, and
set up his
memorial tablet beside that of his grandfather,
Thuthmes I.
According to his own story he was always
victorious, and we
can be quite sure that each campaign
was successful. It is
interesting to note that the civilization
of
Syria, judging by the equipment of their
army,
was fully equal to, and in some respects superior
to,
that of Egypt. Chariots and chain armor were seldom
seen in Egypt. But among the spoil at Megiddo were
nine hundred and twenty-four chariots and two hundred
suits of armor. Horses had been almost unknown among
the Egyptians. Great numbers of them were brought back
by the army. Henceforth they were famous for their war
chariots and horses.
Thuthmes was equally energetic as a builder. He
finished the temples begun by Hatasu, carefully erasing
her
name and figure. His great work was at
Karnak.
At the eastern end, back of the temple of
the Middle
Empire, he built his great festal hall. He set up a
great
pylon (No.
VII). He also caused the account of his victorious
reign to be
inscribed on the walls just outside the
sanctuary.
He built, repaired, and added to temples all over the
country from Semneh and Kummeh on the south to the
cities
of the delta. Two obelisks were set up by him at
Heliopolis. Ramses II appropriated them
and adorned
them with his inscriptions. They were removed to
Alexandria and
placed in front of the Cæsareum, where they
were known as
Cleopatra's Needles. One of them now
adorns the Thames
Embankment in London while the
other stands in Central Park in
the metropolis of the New
World. He also set up two great
obelisks at Der el-Bahri.
They were the largest in Egypt and
are said to have been
one hundred and eight cubits (or one
hundred and eighty-five
feet) in height. Prof. Petrie thinks
that the obelisk
in the Hippodrome at Constantinople was the
top of one
of them and that the other is now in front of St.
John
Lateran at Rome.
Thuthmes III is rightly considered as the greatest of
the pharaohs. Coming to the throne at a time when the
land
had been enjoying a long peace and was almost ready
to fall to
pieces from that very fact, he held Egypt together,
reconquered the rebellious chiefs of
Syria, and pushed the
northern and the southern
boundaries to the farthest
extremes reached by his grandfather
and which were never
passed. Ramses the Great perhaps
surpassed him as a
builder, but his work, as well as that of
all the kings from
Thuthmes to Ramses, would have been
impossible but for
Thuthmes' military achievements.
Amenhotep II and Thuthmes IV had tranquil reigns,
unmarked by important wars or building. The former
made, it is
true, a campaign into
Syria and entered
Naharina.
It seems,
however, to have been a triumphal
progress through his
dominions, rather than a war.
Peace continued during the next reign, that of Amenhotep
III. Affairs in
Syria
seem to have been especially
tranquil. The country was ruled
by Egyptian governors,
or native chiefs under Egyptian
direction, who were able
and faithful. The
Tell el-Amarna tablets give an interesting
and undoubtedly accurate picture of the condition of
Syria at this time.
Amenhotep, therefore, had leisure to devote to temple-building.
He seems to have cared chiefly for the pleasures
of the chase during the first years of his reign. In
his tenth year he married Tyi and immediately turned his
attention to public works. It was natural for him to
extend the
Temple of
Ammon at
Karnak. He built there
a great pylon (No. III in Baedeker). He also built a small
but elegant temple to Mont, the god of victory, to the
north of the main temple. Only the foundations now remain
but there are many evidences of its beauty.
His great work was the Temple of
Luxor. It was dedicated
to his divine father
Ammon. It was enlarged and
completed by Ramses II and became
one of the most magnificent
temples of Egypt. Its proximity to
Karnak has
tended
to lower its reputation to-day.
He did not content himself with building at
Thebes,
but spread his work over the
entire country. The great
Temple of Soleb in
Nubia, far south of the second cataract
and near Gebel Barkal, the holy mountain, commemorates
his conquests in that region. It is reported to be in an
excellent state of preservation and it will probably be
one
of the great sights for the tourist in the next
generation.
Amenhotep IV is known as the “heretic king.” He
was
the son of Amenhotep III by Queen Tyi. He abandoned
THE COURT OF THE TEMPLE OF LUXOR
Thebes, established his capital at
Tell el-Amarna ,
set up
the worship of the sun-god, and tried to dethrone
Ammon, who
had been the chief god of Egypt for nearly
two thousand years.
He made quite a commotion in the
school of arts as well as in
religion and politics in his short
reign. He seems, however,
to have held the reins of
power in
Syria rather loosely, and at his death that whole
country was in open revolt.
He was followed by two sons-in-law with short and
unimportant reigns, then King Ay, who seems also to
have been
one of the nobility and perhaps gained the
throne by marriage.
Horemheb, known as the “priest-king,” closed the
dynasty. He was a great general and high-priest, but
with no
claims of birth to the throne. He probably had
a short reign
but did considerable building. This may
be explained by
assuming that some of it was done before
his accession to the
throne, when he was governor of
Thebes, high-priest of Ammon, and perhaps
even more
powerful than King Ay.
So ends the eighteenth dynasty after a reign of about
two hundred and fifty years. This was the great period of
Egypt in the history of the world. The power of Babylonia
had
waned and, moreover, it had never sought foreign
conquests, at
least beyond Northern
Syria. Assyria
had
not yet risen. Persia, Greece, and Rome were not
yet
thought of. In the next dynasty the position held
under
Thuthmes was regained and maintained but not
extended.
The nineteenth dynasty revived the country and
worthily continued the pace set by its predecessor. Ramses
I
was the first king. He reigned only two years, not
long enough
for any great work of building or of war.
Had he lived
to carry out his plans he would have been
one of Egypt's
greatest builders.
His son and successor, Seti I, is another of the prominent
figures in Egyptian history. As a builder and as a warrior
he stands in the front rank. His victorious campaigns
in
Syria brought that
country again under the rule of
Egypt. He describes them in a
long inscription on the
north wall of the great hypostyle hall
at
Karnak.
His most famous work and the most renowned building
in Egypt and perhaps in the world is that great hypostyle
hall. To many of us, both those who have visited the
country
and those who have not, it is familiar and almost
typifies the
ancient Egyptian temple. Ramses I designed
it but probably did
not live to actually work on it. Seti
did the building, and
the decorations were made by his
son, Ramses II.
At
Thebes his other great work
was the mortuary
temple at
Kurna, also planned by his father and finished
by
his son. His great temple at
Abydos was
also unfinished
at his death and completed later by Ramses
II.
This temple was built, not to Seti's own glory, but in
honor
of the early kings buried there. These were his
great
works, but he was active throughout the entire
kingdom,
building a small temple in one place, adding a
statue or
figure in another, repairing in others.
Seti is perhaps the finest character in Egyptian history.
A great conqueror, he is modest in narrating his
campaigns.
A great builder, he never steals any one
else's
work; in fact, he often restores an inscription or
figure
which had been defaced in a preceding dynasty. He
was
a fond father, proud of the growing ability of his
son. He
was a reverent man, honoring the gods and the
priesthood,
but not ruled by them. Even his mummy to-day
wears
an expression
of peace and intelligence. The great king
seems to sleep and
to need only the spark of life to awaken
him.
We now come to Ramses II, the most famous if not the
greatest king of Egypt. I have already, and necessarily,
said much about him. Therefore I need only repeat
that he was
a great ruler, worthily occupying the throne
and deserving
most if not all his fame. That he was not
a preëminently great
warrior is perhaps due to lack of
opportunity, for Thuthmes
and Seti had done the work
before him. Therefore he had more
time and resources
to expend on building. To the Greeks and
the Romans
as well as to the Egyptians of to-day he was the
great hero-king.
The great rock
temple of Abu Simbel
was his most
important work and may be called his
monument. Unfortunately,
comparatively few travelers extend
their journey
to it. His temple at
Abydos must have been one
of the most
elaborate and beautiful in the land, ranking
with Der el-Bahri
as small and elegant rather than stupendous
or magnificent. He
added the great court to the
Temple of
Luxor, completing it on a scale far grander
than that planned by its founder, Amenhotep III. All over
Egypt are found evidences of his reign and work.
Ramses is also famous as the father of a large family.
The records mention seventy-nine sons and fifty-nine
daughters. Prof. Petrie even dares to suggest that
unimportant
and early deceased infants would probably
double
that number. His fourth son, Khaemuas, was brought
up
as the heir to the throne. He was made high-priest
and
governor of
Memphis and generally appears as the most
important of
Ramses' sons. But the old man lived too
long for him and he
died before his father.
Merenptah, the thirteenth son, was then proclaimed
heir, but did not get to the throne until eleven years later.
Old Ramses seems to have held on to his power to the very
last
and to have been unwilling to have his heir share the
throne
in his last days, as his own father and many other
kings
before him had done.
Merenptah is known chiefly as the supposed pharaoh
of the Exodus, though this cannot be called proved by the
monuments. But assuming that the account of the servitude
of
the people of Israel in Egypt has a historical foundation,
he
best answers the requirements. Some of the
more advanced
higher critics of the Bible think that the
whole story of the
bondage in Egypt and the Exodus is a
fabrication and a myth.
But there is nothing improbable
in the story and it is a great
deal more difficult to account
for its invention. A proud
people like the Hebrews would
not be apt to invent a tale that
they had been in servitude
to the hated Egyptians. We can
perhaps cut down the
figures both of years and of people. Then
Ramses II
could easily be the oppressor and Merenptah the
pharaoh
of the Exodus. Such migrations of small Asiatic
tribes
into Egypt and their being put to forced labor by
the
Egyptians were probably not uncommon. We may also
assume that the importance of their escape was greater to
the Hebrews than to the Egyptians. It would be unlikely
that Merenptah would personally pursue them, especially
as he was an old man, fifty-eight at his accession,
seventy-eight
at his death. All similar tales in history
have a
foundation in fact but have expanded in the course
of
generations handing them down by oral tradition. If
we
reduce the story in every dimension there is no
improbability
in it, rather does it seem probable and in
agreement
with known facts.
Merenptah won a great victory over the invading army
of Libyans which is narrated at
Karnak. He did not
accomplish any important building,
but confined himself
to small repairs and minor works. The
land and the people
were worn out under Ramses and needed
rest.
Seti II, also known as Seti Merenptah, had a short and
unimportant reign. Like all his family he did some work
at
Karnak. The dynasty
ended with the short reigns of
Amenmeses, Queen Tausert,
Siptah, and Setnekht.
The twentieth dynasty is known as the Ramessides.
They were all sons of Ramses III and were all known
as Ramses.
Ramses III was another great builder and
Medinet Habu was his
masterpiece. It is a memorial
temple, built to commemorate his
reign and his wars.
The latter, however, were not wars of
conquest, but wars
against invaders. He seems to have been
successful,
judging from his own account. The temple
partly enclosed
in the fore court at
Karnak was built by him and
he planned
and started the Temple of Khonsu. He had
a palace at Medinet
Habu and another at Tell el-Yehudiyeh
in the Delta. Minor
works are scattered all over
the kingdom.
Besides the inscriptions on the monuments we have his
history in a book known as the Harris papyrus. It was
written in his last year and gives an account of his religious
endowments and also of the main events of his reign.
He was the last of the great pharaohs. Even during
his reign the empire seems to be crumbling. He was
devoted to
his harem. Ramses II had a number of wives
and concubines, as
did also all the men of his time in proportion
to their rank
and wealth. But he treated them as
wives who were to bear him
children, not as mere instruments
of sensual pleasure. Some
may think this distinction
imaginary and
it is hard to be sure of it after this
lapse of time. But I
think it is real and justified by the
known facts. The
pictures in the pavilion at Medinet
Habu of Ramses III
trifling with his women in his harem
are not accidental and
can only be interpreted as depicting
a loose life. There is a
wide difference between them and
the pictures of merry-making
in Theban private tombs
to which I have already called
attention. The morals of
the court and people followed those
of the king. Society
fell into a state of moral corruption
which presaged and
caused the downfall of the empire, just as
it did in the case
of the Greeks and the Romans and probably
always will do.
The other kings of that dynasty were unimportant and
all had short reigns except Ramses X and Ramses XII.
With
them ends also the period of the greatness of Egypt.
In fact,
it really ended during the reign of Ramses III.
It was the
only time that Egypt could be called a world
power, for in her
earlier periods of greatness she had been
confined to the Nile
Valley, and afterwards she was never
powerful and seldom
independent. The great majority of
the ruins which we have
seen, studied, and admired on our
Nile trip belong to this
period. So it behooves the Nile
tourist to put his historical
attention and study largely on
these four centuries, 1600 B.C
to 1200 B.C. All of the
kings are important and it is no very difficult task to learn
their names and order. If we were to single out those of
especial prominence we should select Aahmes, Thuthmes
I, Queen
Hatasu, Thuthmes III, Amenhotep III, Seti I,
Ramses II and
Ramses III.
Most of these kings had their tombs in the
Biban el-Muluk,
opposite
Thebes. Their mummies have also
been found, usually removed and hidden to preserve them
from spoilers. So we can look to-day on their very faces
and judge as
far as may be possible their character. We
are surely not far
wrong in noting the sturdiness of Aahmes,
the cunning of
Thuthmes I, the energy and restlessness
of Thuthmes III, the
greatness of Seti I, and the air of
conscious power of Ramses
II. And Ramses may well
have such an air, for was he not born
a prince, made
associate king while yet a youth, and sole
ruler of Egypt
for sixty-seven years, in itself a lifetime?
Ancient writers had exaggerated ideas of the population
of
Thebes. Homer
speaks of “the hundred-gated
Thebes” with two hundred chariots at each
gate. He was
a poet and may be allowed to speak in even
numbers.
Diodorus makes a similar statement, saying that
the city
contained 20,000 chariots with the requisite horses
and men.
Strabo says that a priest told him that the Theban
army
numbered 700,000 fighting men. I cannot accuse the
Roman traveler of misquoting his authority, but I have
no difficulty in assuming that the priest unconsciously
exaggerated the facts.
Thebes was the capital and also
the headquarters of
the army. But none of the Egyptian
campaigns required an
unusually large force. A small
body of chosen warriors would
have been more efficient
and more natural. The population of
the Delta may have
been fairly large, but they were an
agricultural people, indifferent
as to who ruled the country
so long as they had
protection from raiding Libyans or Asiatic
tribes. So a
martial class, such as the Samurai in Japan, even
if small
in numbers, could easily have held possession of the
country
and carried on its foreign wars.
Thebes was spread
out
over considerable ground, as one can see from its remains.
The
spoils of war found their way thither and
the city was rich in
material property and in slaves.
The history of the next eight hundred years is of comparatively
little
importance to the traveler. Herhor,
the founder of the
twenty-first dynasty, was an able man
and his name is well
known. Sheshenq I, the first king of
the next dynasty, owes
his fame to his expedition in Judea
and Lower
Syria, which is mentioned in the Bible
and
narrated in full in hieroglyphs and sculptures at
Karnak.
For centuries Egypt had ruled
Nubia and her more
powerful and energetic kings had
made pleasant little
excursions into Ethiopia, carving their
names here and
there and even occasionally building a temple.
When
Egypt fell into decay the power and civilization of
Ethiopia
grew, and even in the time of the twenty-second
dynasty
they began to press northward, turning the tables
on the
Egyptians and making raids, delightful from their
point
of view, into the country of Egypt. In the course of
time
they became rulers of Egypt, having easily
overthrown
the weak native kings. The twenty-fifth dynasty
was
composed of these princes and the period is
therefore
known as that of the Ethiopian dominion.
Taharqa was the most important. He was unfortunate
in his military affairs for he came into collision with the
rising power of Assyria. Asarhaddon came with an army
through
Syria and Palestine, making things
very uncomfortable
for local kinglets who had misjudged the
political
outlook and placed themselves on the side of
Egypt and
Ethiopia. He invaded Egypt. He made a rapid
descent
on
Memphis,
capturing the city and Taharqa's entire
family and domestic
establishment. The king himself
fled to his native Ethiopia.
The Assyrians did not remain
in Egypt, but retired satisfied
with their rich booty and
having imposed a tribute upon the
country. Taharqa
returned as soon as it was prudent for him to
do so and
recaptured
Memphis. He probably did not approve of
paying the
tribute to Assyria and so Asarhaddon had to
come back to
collect it. The latter died on the way, but
the campaign was
continued under the command of his
son and successor,
Assurbanipal. The Egyptian army
was again defeated and Taharqa
fled up the Nile. This
time the Assyrians pursued and Taharqa
vanished into
Ethiopia. His nephew tried to regain the throne
after
Assurbanipal had gone back to Assyria, but the
latter came
again and drove him back to Ethiopia.
Although Taharqa was kept busy in war and was unfortunate
therein, he managed to do something as a builder.
He was the first king after Ramses III to accomplish
much. He set up the columns of the fore court at
Karnak.
A solitary
survivor remains and is much admired to-day.
He also built a
temple to Osiris and did other minor work
there. His great
work was his temple at Napata near
Gebel Barkal. This was his
own capital and he was able
to work more safely and leisurely
here. It is 430 miles
from Wady Halfa and near the fourth
cataract. It is
entirely out of reach of the tourist, and, in
fact, even few
Egyptologists of the present day have seen it.
Most of
their information is drawn from the accounts of
Calliaud
in 1824 and Lepsius in 1842.
The time of the twenty-sixth dynasty is known as the
Saite period. The most important kings were Psamtek I
and
Aahmes II. At this time (sixth century B.C.) the
influence of Greece upon the culture and
civilization of
Egypt began to be strongly felt. Just as
to-day, large
numbers of Greeks settled in the country and
controlled
the commerce and art. Under the latter king a
body-guard
of Greek mercenaries was also formed.
At the beginning of this dynasty Assyria was the world
power of the day. But her fall was rapid and complete;
in fact, it
was accomplished in less than seventy years after
the
invasions of Egypt under Asarhaddon and Assurbanipal.
The
second Babylonian Empire, under Nebuchadnezzar
and his
successors, did not have much to do with
Egypt. It was much
farther from Babylon than from
Nineveh, and, besides, the
tribes from the mountains of the
northeast were becoming
powerful and menacing. These
were the Persians, who in 539
B.C. conquered Babylon
and spread over the world, reaching Egypt in 525. Cambyses
was
the first Persian king of Egypt and the founder
of the
twenty-seventh dynasty. His rule in Egypt is
chiefly
remembered by the tales of his killing the sacred
Apis bull
and causing the colossal statue of Ramses at the
Ramesseum to be destroyed.
Under Darius II (405 B.C.)
Egypt again regained her
independence and was ruled by native
kings. Nektanebo I
was interested in temple-building and
devoted himself to
the repair and restoration of the ancient
sanctuaries. The
glory of Egypt seemed to return again and
shine faintly
for a few years. There is a striking similarity
in the
reign of Nabonidus, the last king of Babylon. He too
was a great restorer of temples and busied himself
therewith
while the Persian storm was gathering.
After the death of Nektanebo II, the Persians regained
possession of the country and held it for ten years until
the
arrival of Alexander the Great.
So ended the kingdom of Egypt. Since that time the
country has always been subject to foreigners. During
the
earlier periods of foreign rulers it had preserved its
own
national life and civilization. Henceforth it was always
the
conquered nation in all respects. The Egyptian
lived on and
has survived unto our day as a race, but
always as the lower
element in his own land.
Let us look back for a moment over the history of
Egypt as an independent power. It may be said to
begin, as
best we know now, with the first king of the
Thinite dynasty
which preceded Mena. We may place
him at 5000 B.C. We have three periods of greatness:
The pyramid-builders of the fourth dynasty; the twelfth
dynasty, which did so much to develop and extend the
country; and the great conquerors and builders at the
beginning of the New Empire. Naturally there were
strong and weak monarchs. But none of them were
vicious like Ivan the Terrible of Russia and others like
him in European history. Although possessed of absolute
power over their own people, and some of them great
conquerors, none delighted in cruelty as did Assurnazirpal
and other Assyrian kings. The country was singularly
free from rebellion and civil war. True, there were
sometimes
two claimants to the throne, but even then there
was
seldom fighting. Each ruler seems to have had the
welfare
of the nation at heart and to have ruled ably, at
least
to the extent of his ability. They were in harmony
with
the priesthood with the possible exception of
Amenhotep
IV. The priests represented the public in a
sense. Public
opinion did not exist as to-day in America.
The
priests formed the intermediate class between the king
and
the people, for they influenced and held a sort of
power
over both as the religious leaders of the country,
the representatives
of the all-powerful gods.
All that we call Egyptian art belongs to this period. It
was imitated during the Greek and Roman rule and even
later, but this was always acknowledged imitation. No
later progress or development took place which could be
called Egyptian.
On the whole, the country was prosperous and life worth
living. Of
course, there were various grades of society,
and those in the
lower ranks probably did not have as much
of the pleasures of
existence as their superiors. That has
been true always and
everywhere, is now, and probably
ever will be. There were
times of plenty and of famine
according as the crops were good
and the nation successful
in war. The Egyptian had his work
and his pleasures
and seems to have had quite an unexciting
existence compared
with other peoples of that time. The same
holds
true to-day.
Our interest during our trip has necessarily been almost
entirely in this period of the real Egypt. But several of
our best-preserved and most interesting temples are of the
Greek and Roman period and we must therefore pay some
attention to that time. Then for the sake of completeness
we must carry on our historical survey to modern times.
Alexander arrived in Egypt in 332
B.C. His great
victory at Issus had made him master
of all the Persian
possessions on the Mediterranean. He seems
to have met
with no resistance from the Egyptians. There were
evidently
no plans for them to reëstablish an
independent
government. Alexander's successes had been so
brilliant
and unexpected that they had stunned the people.
The
Egyptians always hated the Persians. They had not
only shown themselves indifferent to the national religion
and gods but had treated them contemptuously and insulted
them. They had defied Ammon and had even killed a
sacred Apis. Thus they had grievously offended the priests
and the whole Egyptian people. Alexander could not do
worse and as a matter of fact he did exactly the opposite.
He honored the gods in every possible way, and then to
make himself doubly acceptable to the nation he made a
pilgrimage to the celebrated shrine of Ammon at the oasis
THE TEMPLE OF ISIS AT PHILAE
in the
Libyan Desert and was proclaimed by the
priests
to be the son of the god.
He founded the city of
Alexandria and then hastened
back to Asia, for Darius
had gathered another army. The
battle of Arbela made Alexander
lord of Persia and Babylonia
and practically of all the
Eastern World. In 323
B.C.,
at the early age of thirty-two, he died at Babylon.
His great kingdom was speedily portioned out among
his generals. Ptolemy claimed Egypt and hastened
thither. He
had to defend himself against Perdikkas,
the regent for Philip
Arridæus, and after his defeat and
death against Antigonus,
who tried to invade Egypt but
was obliged to retreat without a
battle owing to Ptolemy's
corruption of his mercenaries.
Ptolemy, known as Ptolemy Soter, proclaimed himself
king and founded the long line of Ptolemies which ended
with
the famous or infamous Cleopatra. Some of them
built temples
in the ancient Egyptian style in honor of the
gods and to
their own glory. Such are the temples of
Dendera, Esne,
Edfu,
Kom
Ombo, and the Temple of
Isis at Philæ, which in
their present form date from this
period. They built the great
pylon at
Karnak and re-built
the sanctuary.
Karnak
was never a finished temple;
from the twelfth dynasty onward
additions were always
being made and sometimes were left in an
unfinished state
for many years. When this front pylon was
being built
the older buildings in the rear were already
falling into
ruin.
Many of the Ptolemies were weak and dissolute. Others
were strong and able. On the whole, Egypt was prosperous
and contented under their rule. During the latter
part of
their reign the Roman Senate had been occasionally
called on
to restore and preserve order. Mark Antony
went to Egypt
as their ambassador to reprove Cleopatra
for certain misdeeds,
but was captivated by her and stayed
with her as her husband
or paramour. After some years
Octavius came against them and
defeated their combined
fleet at Actium. They then committed
suicide and the
country came under the direct power of Rome.
Egypt was conquered by Octavius Augustus in person,
and he took care to make it as far as possible the personal
property of himself and his successors. So he endeavored
in
every way to keep it out of the control of the Roman
Senate.
The officials were directly appointed by the emperor
and the
taxes were determined by him and remitted
to him.
The country soon became the granary of the empire.
Rome was full of ruffians who did no productive work
and had
to be fed at the expense of the state. So quantities
of grain
were brought from Egypt and at the proper
times distributed.
It was also the trade route to the East.
For centuries the
countries of the Mediterranean had
talked of the wonders of
Punt, Ophir, Arabia, India, and
the dim lands beyond.
Occasional commercial expeditions
had been sent and had been
regarded as of almost
equal importance with the great military
campaigns. We
have seen that of Queen Hatasu pictured on the
walls of
Der el-Bahri. In the reign of Nero, the commerce
between
India and the Mediterranean countries,
especially
the capital Rome, increased rapidly. Egypt was
the intermediate
station and profited by it.
Several Roman emperors visited the country. Vespasian
was first proclaimed Cæsar at
Alexandria, and his son
Titus started from there on
the campaign against Judea
which resulted in the destruction
of Jerusalem. Hadrian
is said to have come twice and he even
made the Nile trip.
Marcus
Aurelius visited
Alexandria and heard
some of
the famous philosophers of the time.
At the partition of the Roman Empire in 395 A.D.
Egypt fell to the Eastern
Kingdom, which had its capital
at Byzantium, the modern
Constantinople. I shall treat
of the relation of Rome to the
ancient religion of Egypt
and the introduction and growth of
Christianity in the
next chapter. The decline of the old faith
and the wranglings
of the adherents of the new one form the
history of the
first six centuries of our era.
In 619 A.D. the reviving
Persian empire of Chosroes
invaded the country and conquered
it. Ten years later
they were driven out by Heraclius. The
Romans were
only able to maintain themselves in Egypt for a
few years,
for a new power and a new religion were being born
in the
East.
The Arabs are among the oldest Semitic peoples. They
had led a pastoral life in Arabia for centuries. They had
founded mighty kingdoms such as Saba, which, however,
had had
little influence on the great world. According
to the
testimony of ancient authorities they were heathen,
with a
degraded form of idol-worship. In 570 A.D. their
great prophet, Muhammad, was born, and his
life and
work changed the history of Arabia and of the world.
The character, rise, and expansion of his religion belong
to the next chapter; here we will only look at the
political features. The attack of the Muslim army upon
Persia compelled Chosroes to withdraw from Egypt and
recall his forces to the defence of his own kingdom. This
gave opportunity for the successful return of the Romans
or rather Byzantines. After conquering Persia and
Syria the Muslims
descended upon Egypt and easily won it.
There was no
resistance on the part of the native population.
The
Byzantines were shut up in
Alexandria
and
finally capitulated (641
A.D.).
We can rapidly pass over the history of Egypt under
the Muslim. It centres entirely in
Cairo
and its predecessors,
Old Cairo and Fostat. All the building
of the
rulers was done here. The struggles of rival claimants
to
the throne were fought here, for whoever held
Cairo held
the country.
Until the death of Ali, the fourth Caliph and the son-in-law
of the prophet, Egypt was directly dependent on the
Caliph at Mecca. It then came under the power of the
Omayyades, who ruled it from Damascus (661 to 750 A.D.).
Then came the
Abbasides, who founded Bagdad and made
it their capital. They
lost the country in 868, at which
time the Arab dominion,
strictly speaking, came to an end.
They had ruled for more
than two hundred years and
done little or nothing for the
country. Not a building,
religious or secular, except the
mosque of Amr, dates
from this period. All that could be
extracted as taxes or
tribute was collected and sent to Mecca,
Damascus, or
Bagdad, and that is the whole story.
Ahmed ibn Tulun, a Turkish slave, was sent to Egypt
as governor. Knowing the weak condition of the caliphate
he
gradually increased his power and decreased his
tribute and
allegiance until he became an independent
ruler. He then
invaded
Syria and carried his
conquests
to Mesopotamia, the ancient limit of the
Egyptian Empire,
under Thuthmes III. Thus for the first time
in more
than a thousand years Egypt was not only
independent,
but a conquering power. Ibn Tulun also
followed the
example of the pharaohs by building a noble
mosque for
the worship of God and to his own honor.
The sons of Ibn Tulun were incapable and in twenty
years lost
their power. Then the government was unsettled
until the great
emir Gohar gained the control in the
name of his master,
El-Mu'izz, the founder of the Fatimide
dynasty. They ruled for
two hundred years, a period of
great prosperity for Egypt.
In 1169 Yusuf ibn Eyyub Salah ed-Din, the famous
Saladin, became grand vizir, and on the death of the Caliph
he
ascended the throne. He is known to us chiefly from
his wars
against the Crusaders in Palestine and final victory
over
them. His family ruled Egypt and
Syria
until 1250
A.D.Then followed the Mamluk Sultans. Many of them
were
able men and their names are borne by their mosques
to-day.
The most important were Beybars, Kalaun,
En-Nasir, Hasan
(better known
as Sultan Hasan, the
builder of the great mosque), Barkuk, Muayyad, Barsbey,
Kait Bey, and
El-Ghuri. This period was the golden age
of the Arabs
in Egypt and the time of the building of the
great mosques.
In 1517 Egypt was invaded and conquered by Selim I,
Sultan of Turkey. It became a Turkish province, which
it
nominally is at the present day. But Constantinople
was far
off and the Turks were never powerful on the sea.
So the real
authority fell into the hands of the Mamluk
beys, who
practically governed the country. They had
their little
difficulties with each other, amounting sometimes
almost to
wars, and oppressed and plundered the
people to the utmost.
In 1798 Napoleon came with his army and practically
conquered the country. But he was not fighting the
Egyptians
or even the Turks. His enemies were England
and the allied
forces of Europe. Egypt became merely
the battlefield between
France and England. The latter
were
victorious both on land and sea. The French were
forced to
surrender and return home in 1801. I have
already referred to
the scientific results of their campaign.
We owe our present
knowledge of ancient Egypt, or at
least its beginning, to the
scientific corps of Napoleon's
army.
Mehemet Ali came to Egypt as pasha in 1805. He
was
of humble origin but a great military and administrative
genius. He established himself by the treacherous
slaughter of
the Mamluks and soon felt strong enough
to rebel against his
suzerain. He conquered
Syria and
advanced into Asia Minor, threatening Constantinople
itself. Had he been able to deal with Turkey alone he
certainly would have won complete independence for
Egypt and
Syria and
might even have gone further. But
a new power intervened. The
Powers of Europe objected
strongly to the disturbance of the
international situation,
and Mehemet Ali had to withdraw and
continue to acknowledge
the Sultan as his sovereign and to pay
tribute.
Said Pasha will be remembered as the ruler under whose
authority and financial support the great
Sue Canal was built. Isma'il Pasha
plunged the country into debt
and made it bankrupt. He is
responsible for its financial
troubles, which has made it
subject to the Powers and
furnishes the excuse for their
control of Egypt. In 1882
a rebellion broke out, and France,
which had been the predominant
power in Egyptian affairs,
hesitated and withdrew,
leaving England to represent Europe
and civilization.
The events since that time belong to the
chapter on
Egypt of to-day.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER XVI
THE RELIGION AND GODS OF EGYPT
THE Egyptians, like all
ancient nations, were a very
religious people. In every ruined
building or
tomb which we have seen the gods and the life
beyond the grave have been the principal themes. Most
of the objects in the museum are connected with the
religious
rather than the secular life of the people. So
we
have a mass of material for the study of their
religion.
But it is a large subject, for we are to
consider a period of
five thousand years. Moreover, the
religion was, especially
in the earlier times, local rather
than national or
universal.
Each city and each district had its patron divinity
whose importance was proportionate to the extent and
power of
his territory. Therefore Ptah, the god of
Memphis,
was in a sense the chief god of the
kingdom while
Memphis was the capital, and his
influence as ex-chief
god prolonged the religious importance
of the city after
her political power had waned.
Thebes was the capital
during the time of Egypt's greatest prominence, and so its
god
Ammon became the chief god of the country. A successful
war
was attributed to his favor and assistance,
so he—that is, his
temples and priests—got a large share of
the booty. Then as he
was the especial patron of the
reigning pharaoh, it behooved
the latter to build a temple
in his honor or to add to his
great shrine at
Karnak.
Besides the local divinities, of varying power and importance
both on earth and in heaven, there were the great
national gods who were reverenced throughout the land
and whose influence grew with age.
Osiris was the great god whose worship was perhaps
the most universal and continuous, for he was the god
and
judge of the dead and therefore every Egyptian had
a very
decided personal interest in him. After death the
soul had to
come before him to give an account of his life
and hear his
sentence pronounced. The picture of the
judgment scene is
quite common in the Book of the Dead.
We also find it, with
all its interesting details, in one of
the chapels at Der
el-Medineh.
There must have been various forms of the myth of
Osiris, but we have to content ourselves with that related
by
Plutarch in De Iside et Osiride. We find references
to it in
the earliest pyramid texts and all through Egyptian
history.
According to the legend, the goddess Newt had four
children, the gods Osiris and Set and the goddesses Isis
and
Nephthys. Osiris, in human form, became King of
Egypt and
ruled justly and wisely. Set, his brother and
the god of evil
and darkness, hated him and tried to destroy
him. By a trick
he persuaded him to enter a box or chest
which was immediately
closed and covered with molten
lead. Then he cast it into the
river, which bore it to the
sea. There it lodged in a tamarisk
tree, which grew up
around it and enveloped it in its trunk.
Meantime Isis,
his sister and wife, overwhelmed with grief,
was searching
for his body. At length she found it and brought
it back
in the chest to Egypt. Then she hid it and set out to
find
her son Horus. The wicked Set, however, discovered
the
chest, took the body out and tore it into fourteen
pieces
which he
scattered throughout the land. Isis returned,
and again set
out in search of the dismembered body.
Wherever she found a
piece she buried it and established
a shrine to Osiris. Horus
grew to manhood and went out
to fight Set, the murderer of his
father. After a stubborn
contest lasting several days he
conquered and brought Set
as a prisoner to Isis. She let him
go, and Horus, in a rage,
tore the royal diadem from her head.
Thout then replaced
it by a cow's head.
The head of Osiris had been found and buried at
Abydos.
This became his chief shrine,
and all Egypt looked
on it as the probable scene of the
judgment. As all Jews
wish to be buried symbolically or
actually in the valley of
Jehosaphat, so the ancient Egyptian
wanted to be buried
at
Abydos, or at least sent his mummy to dwell there for
a while with Osiris. Temples to Osiris were built here
by Seti
I and Ramses II. In the Osiris chapel of the
former are the
best pictures of the god. The legend of
the dismemberment of
his body and of his journey in the
lower world and
resurrection was a favorite subject for
temple illustration,
as can be seen at Dendera and Philæ.
There are several temples
to Osiris at
Karnak.
The goddess Isis, the sister and wife of Osiris, was also
prominent in the Egyptian pantheon. She may be called
the greatest Egyptian goddess. Her worship was universal
in Egypt, and spread abroad to
Syria and Italy. One of
the main
temples at Pompeii was dedicated to her. She
had temples in
many other Italian cities as well as in Rome
itself.
In Egypt she came into more prominence in later times.
Her principal temple was in the Delta, near Mit Gamr.
It was built by Nektanebo I of the thirtieth dynasty. She
had also a small temple at Dendera and a chapel in the
temple of
Seti I at
Abydos. The island of Philæ
was
especially sacred to her, and a temple was begun there
by
Nektanebo and finished by the Ptolemies. Isis was
also
identified and confused with Hathor. This goddess
had
temples or shrines at
Abu Simbel, Der el-Bahri, Der el-Medineh,
Kom Ombo, and, most important of all,
at
Dendera.
The cow was sacred to both Isis and Hathor. They are
usually represented with horns, and sometimes Hathor has
a
cow's head. The moon was sacred to them and is
usually placed
between the horns.
Horus was the son of Osiris and Isis and was even more
widely known and worshipped. There were several
Horuses who were more or less confused with each other.
They had various names, such as Harmakhis, Haroeris,
Harsiesis, and others. He was a sun-god and was therefore
called Re-Harmakhis. The hawk was sacred to him,
hence he has a hawk's head. His sanctuaries are spread
over the entire country. We remember him as the god of
Edfu, one of the gods of
Kom Ombo, and also as the patron
of our old friend the
Sphinx.
Speaking of Horus brings us to the worship of the sun.
Ra was the great god, the sun. Just as the worship of
Osiris was universal because of the ubiquity of death, so
the sun was everywhere worshipped as the god of day, the
giver of light and heat, hence the creator of the world
and
everything therein. Ra was therefore the father of all
the
gods. He was not, according to tradition, the father
of
Osiris, though he was the husband of the latter's
mother,
Newt, the goddess of the sky. Osiris was begotten
by
the god Seb, a fact which created a scandal in
heaven
and aroused the anger of Ra. After a momentary
outburst, however, Newt was restored to favor, and she
does not
appear to have been any the less honored
among men.
The chief seat of the worship of Ra was at
Heliopolis,
the biblical On. This was
the most important centre of
religious life in Egypt. This
fact is not generally known
because its remains have so
completely disappeared. It
shared the fate of
Memphis in that its buildings were torn
down and the stone taken to
Cairo. All that we can now
see of the ancient city
is the obelisk of Usertesen I rising
up from the midst of a
wheat-field. But we have good
evidence of the importance of
Heliopolis. Joseph married
a daughter of one of the priests of Ra. Herodotus visited
it and obtained much of his information there. Plato is
said to have studied in its schools. It lay directly in
the
path of the Persian invasions and suffered severely.
Then
Alexandria arose and became the chief
centre of learning
and philosophy, taking away its wise men.
When Strabo
visited it, about 60
B.C., the city was deserted and some of
its obelisks had already been removed to
Alexandria.
Later Rome was also
supplied.
The great religious upheaval under Amenhotep IV, the
so-called “heretic king,” was not the introduction of a new
religion into Egypt, but the exaltation of Ra and his cult
at
Heliopolis and the disgrace of Ammon
and his priests at
Thebes. There are evidences that it was
fomenting under
Amenhotep III. The priests of Ammon had been
prominent
in the war against the Hyksos, had made the king
the
special protegé and son of Ammon, and tried not only
to
assume the spiritual authority over the land but also
to
rule the country, and the pharaoh, Amenhotep IV,
chafed
under their influence and, as he had the army with
him,
threw off their yoke. The theory that he was
supported
by the priesthood of
Heliopolis explains both the high
standard of
religious philosophy shown by him and his
court and the
non-resistance of the people to his sun-worship
and reforms.
Moses, the great Hebrew legislator, as an adopted son
of the pharaoh (which pharaoh is immaterial) was probably
educated here, for Paul says that he was “instructed
in all
the wisdom of the Egyptians.” If so, it would be
interesting
but difficult to determine how far this training
and the
wisdom learned here affected him when as the leader
of the
Hebrews he gave them the code of laws which
through them has
had such an influence on the world.
Certainly, humanly
speaking, it could not be without effect.
All the religious literature of Egypt shows the influence
of the priests of On and much of it was written and put
into shape by them. On was never a great city in numbers
or politically. But because of its having been the
intellectual
and religious centre of the nation every
thoughtful
traveler will look with interest even on the
place where it
once stood.
We have seen how Osiris, Isis, and Horus formed a
trinity made up of father, mother, and son. This idea
spread
through all Egypt and the gods were arranged in
triads and
also in enneads. So we have Ammon, Mut,
and Khonsu at
Thebes; Ptah, Sekhet, and Imhotep at
Memphis, and similar groups in other
places.
Ptah has been already mentioned as the great god of
Memphis and therefore the head god of the
country while
that city was the capital of the kingdom. He was
the
great patron of craftsmen of all kinds and
corresponded
to the Greek Hephaistos and the Roman Vulcan.
When
the political career of
Memphis came to an end he quietly
retired, still holding an honorable position among the principal
gods.
Ammon was the god of
Thebes.
During the twelfth
dynasty a temple was built in his honor at
Karnak. It is
probable that there was already a shrine here, which was
enlarged or rebuilt. Several rulers of this dynasty are
named
after him. Their activity was mostly in the
Fayum and in the Delta, though they were
from
Thebes.
During the
Hyksos domination the princes of
Thebes gradually regained their power and they
were the leaders
in the struggle which resulted in the
expulsion of the
foreign rulers and their people. So the
throne fell to them,
and their city became the capital and
their god the chief
deity of the land. As he became more
powerful, his priests
taught that he was the greatest of the
gods and had all
their attributes, at least the desirable
ones, combined in
him. So to give him the influence of Ra of
Heliopolis he was
called Ammon Ra. His figure is quite familiar
to us. He is
represented frequently in his own temples,
and usually also in
those of other gods. His priests
were not backward in
proclaiming him the greatest of
the gods, for his glory was
reflected on them. Being
supported by the pharaoh, they were
successful in their
claims. Ammon Ra was acknowledged as the
head of the
gods, at least outwardly, throughout the land.
When
Usertesen and his army conquered
Nubia they carried the
worship of
Ammon with them and established it there.
In the time of
Amenhotep IX the priests of Ammon fled
up the river, taking
the treasures of the god with them.
So when the Ethiopians of
the twenty-fifth dynasty invaded
the country they were loyal
friends of Ammon; and when
they were driven south by the
Persians the priests of
Ammon went with them, carrying also
the treasures of
the god. They established themselves at
Napata, where
Piankhi, the Ethiopian pharaoh who conquered
Egypt at
the end of
the twenty-third dynasty, had built a great temple
to the
Theban gods. They planned and hoped for a
triumphant return to
Egypt but it never came to pass.
The worship of Ammon
continued in Egypt, and
Alexander the Great made his
well-known pilgrimage to
his temple at
Siwa, where the priests proclaimed him the
son of the god.
The original attributes of Ammon are somewhat uncertain.
After he became Ammon Ra he was regarded as
a sun-god. His wife was Mut, the goddess of the earth.
She
also had a temple at
Karnak, of which
only the foundations
are now in existence. Their son was
Khonsu, the
god of the moon. He was another hawk-headed god
and
had his own temple at
Karnak.
Anubis, the jackal-headed god of the dead, is another
well-known deity, though we have no temples dedicated
to
him. He was the son of Nephthys, the sister of Osiris.
He
conducted the dead soul into the presence of Osiris,
examined
the scales and then produced the heart to be
weighed.
Thout, the ibis-headed god, was the patron of learning
and the scribe of the gods. He, as well as Maat, the
goddess
of truth, may be classed among the more
important
and the universal gods. Then we have also Mont,
the
god of victory; Khnum, the ram-headed god; and
Sebek,
the crocodile god of
Kom Ombo.
I have mentioned only the more important gods. There
were hosts of them in all ranks. Lanzone, in his Dictionary
of Egyptian Mythology, has discovered and classified
four
hundred and thirty-eight. The tourist, however, will
find that
a knowledge of these I have named will be sufficient
for him
to view intelligently the reliefs in the temples
and the
paintings in the tombs. The gods are best distinguished
by their
heads or crowns. Most of them have
human bodies. Ammon Ra has
a lofty crown, like two
inverted cornucopias. Osiris is
wrapped up like a mummy
and wears the crown of
Upper Egypt. Horus in his various
forms has a hawk's head, with the sun or sacred
snake, or sometimes with the crowns of Upper and Lower
Egypt. The goddess Maat wore the feather of truth.
Mut had a cap with a vulture's wings protecting her.
Others have been described earlier in this chapter. All
of them carry magic symbols such as the key of life, the
sceptre, or a scourge signifying power. Instead of their
own crown they sometimes have the royal crown of one of
the kingdoms or the combined crown.
We have seen many temples, and the question arises,
How did the Egyptians worship? Or how did they use
their
temples? A religious service in protestant America
and England
is the assembling of the people for religious
instruction. The
element of worship and adoration is
there but it is not the
most prominent. In the Roman
Catholic church the idea is
congregational and individual
worship. The idea in Egypt was
individual worship and
in addition the glorification of the
god. A person came to
the temple and made his sacrifice or
gift to the god. Burnt
offerings were not unknown, but
certainly were not as
common as among the Hebrews, Greeks, or
Romans.
A gift was equally pleasing to the god and more so
to the
priests. A service consisted in praising and adoring
the
god, usually with singing and processions. The
priests
of the temples of Ra and of other sun-gods adored
him at
his rising and setting. They went in procession
through
the halls and courts of the temples and on special
occasions
through the city. There is a picture of such a
procession
on the walls of the forecourt at
Luxor.
Besides officiating at the ceremonies in honor of the god,
the priests acted as his mouthpiece in giving oracles.
They were consulted by the people much as fortune-tellers
now are. Their services were of course needed at
festivals,
such as circumcisions or weddings, and
especially in the
house of death and at the burial. They were
the learned
men of the time. They composed the books of
magic
which guided the soul in its wanderings after death.
The early temples were of simple form and contained
only the shrine of the god. They grew with the nation
until
the standard temple was a large building with courts,
halls,
and chambers. Groups of them made temple cities,
as at
Karnak. Each tomb had its chapel. That of
the
kings, at first the pyramid temple, later the
mortuary
temple of the New Empire, had its staff of
priests to minister
to the soul of the departed and in some
cases to care
for his worship as a god.
The question also arises as to how the religion of the
Egyptian affected his life. Did he have a high standard
of morality, using the word in its highest and most
universal
sense? The opinion of the best scholars is that
his
moral standard was far higher than that of the Greeks
and
Romans or other nations of antiquity. The oldest
books
in the world are the Precepts of Ptah-hetep and of
Kagemni,
a contemporary of the fifth dynasty; the
confessions or
answers of the soul before the judgment seat of
Osiris,
which are perhaps even older; the Instructions of
Amenenhat
of the twelfth dynasty and the maxims of Ani in
the
nineteenth, all show a high state of reasoning as to
man's
duty to others and to the gods. Ameni, ruler of the
Oryx
nome under Usertesen I (2700
B.C.), in his tomb at Benihasan
tells of the justness of his life and rule. “Not a
daughter of
a poor man did I wrong, not a widow did I
THE TEMPLE OF EDFU
oppress, not
a farmer did I oppose, not a herdsman did
I hinder. There was
not a foreman of five from whom I
took his men for the works.
There was not a pauper
around me, there was not a hungry man
in my time.
When there came years of famine, I arose. I
ploughed all
the fields of the Oryx nome, to its southern and
its northern
boundaries. I made its inhabitants live, making
provision
for them; there was not a hungry man in it, and
I gave to
the widow as to her that had a husband: nor did I
favor
the elder above the younger in all that I gave.
Afterward
the great rises of the Nile came, producing
wheat and
barley, and producing all things, and I did not
exact the
arrears of the farm.”
Similar passages are found in other tombs. Of course
the great object of all this righteousness was to secure the
happiness of Ameni's soul in the next world, that it might
be accepted at the tribunal of Osiris. But that is the chief
reason for righteousness in all religions. The Christian
says
not “give to the poor man that he may live,” but
“lay up for
yourselves treasures in heaven.”
We may conclude that the ancient Egyptian, in his
theory of righteousness and his practice of it, excelled his
contemporaries and compares favorably with his descendants
and
the followers of other religions of the present
day.
The Egyptian's theology, like that of all peoples, had
to do largely with the creation and existence of the
universe
and his own life after death. His ideas were
rather confused
and our knowledge of them is limited. It would
be
interesting but would carry me too far to discuss all
of
them. But the future life of the soul has been so
prominent
on our journey that a word on that subject
seems
necessary.
Most of our knowledge of the Egyptian's ideas of life
after death comes from the tombs and funeral literature,
such as the books called The Coming Forth by Day, the
Book of
the Dead, the Book of the Underworld, the Book
of Duat, and
others. We must not have the idea that
the Ancient Egyptian
led a gloomy and sombre existence,
thinking only of his death
and life beyond the grave. On
the contrary he believed in
having all the joys and
pleasures obtainable in this life and
hoped he could continue
them in the next. In the early times
the dead were
thought to live in a world similar to this and
to carry on
the same life. The rich man would be rich and lord
of an
equal estate to that held by him on earth; the poor
man
would continue to live in the same station. But this
condition
would not be attained until after the reunion of
the
four elements, the Ba, the Khu, the Ka, and the
body.
Meantime the soul passed through a period of
wandering
among the gods. In later times, especially at
the beginning
of the New Empire, the life during this first
period
after death was foremost in the minds of the people
and
forms the subject of their literature and tomb
decoration.
They
saw the great sun-god Ra go down each night in the
west and reappear on the opposite side of the horizon in
the
morning. Of course he must travel around in some
way. The idea
of travel in their minds was usually associated
with a boat.
So they thought of the god as journeying
in his boat through
the underworld, the Duat, during
the hours of the night. The
Duat was a long, narrow
valley traversed by a river. It was
inhabited by demons
of every description. The snake was the
favorite form.
There were twelve divisions corresponding to
the twelve
hours of the night. Each of these had an entrance
known
as the portal or the pylon which was guarded by
demons.
The souls of
the dead, a countless multitude, accompanied
Ra. If they had
the proper password they proceeded in
safety, but if not they
were denied entrance.
This Duat is not to be confounded with the Christian
hell. The ancient Egyptians had no idea of a place of
eternal torment for the wicked. If a soul was condemned
by the
tribunal of Osiris, it was immediately devoured by
the waiting
dog; it was annihilated. It is, however, quite
probable that
the foundation for the Hebrew and Christian
hells came from
the Egyptians. Dante's description of it,
in its general
features, shows a marked resemblance to the
underworld of the
Egyptians. The fires of the Duat were
not for the consumption
and torment of the damned, but
for the fiery splendor which
accompanied Ra. Then the
ideas of the Hebrews and Christians
of a fitting and eternal
punishment for the wicked transformed
them into everlasting
flames to burn those unfortunate enough
to be consigned
to them by the judgment of God.
Like all religions of antiquity, it was not a jealous one,
and cheerfully allowed the existence of other religions
and
of other gods. When a foreign bride came to the
harem
of the pharaoh she brought her own religion with
her.
When Egypt conquered a foreign land, such as
Nubia or
Syria, she brought her gods with her.
They conquered the
gods of the land just as the Egyptian army
overcame the
people.
We have seen in studying history how the Persian conquerors
ruthlessly insulted the gods of the vanquished
Egyptians and how Alexander won the favor of the people
by his respectful worship and acknowledgment of their
gods. The Romans went farther, for there was always
room in their pantheon for new gods. The fame of the
Egyptians as the oldest and wisest of nations made them
more than
ready to receive their divinities. They tried also,
as they
had done in the case of the Greeks, to regard them
as their
own gods under other names; so they identified
Ammon with
Jupiter, Horus with Apollo, Ptah with Vulcan,
Osiris with
Pluto, Isis or Hathor with Venus, and so
on through the list.
A theory that the priests of
Heliopolis and the initiated
throughout the land
had a monotheistic religion of their
own while they let the
people believe in their polytheism
has attracted some
attention. Assuming this, it is easy to
argue that the
Israelites through Moses and Aaron got
their monotheism from
them and developed it into Judaism,
from which Christianity
sprung later. This is a very
pretty theory but entirely
lacking in proof or even in evidence.
It is almost open to the
suspicion of having been
made to fit the case, an hypothesis
to account for the
monotheism of the Hebrews. Egyptian
theology did have
great influence on that of the Hebrews and
Christians, and
our knowledge thereof is constantly
increasing. But we
must go cautiously.
Christianity was brought to Egypt by Saint Mark soon
after the crucifixion. As I have said, there was always
room for more gods in Egypt. But the worship of this
God,
Christ, carried with it the renunciation of all other
gods—a
new condition. He and His Father, the Supreme
God, were truly
jealous gods, suffering no other gods
beside them, not only as
equals, but denying others even
the right of existence. So as
Christianity grew it was
natural for the people to engraft
some of the attributes of
the old gods on to the new ones as
they had to surrender
the former. They tried to combine the
two religions.
The story of Mary and Jesus was not so very
different
from that of Isis and Horus. It was easy to add
to one
the most
salient and beloved features of the other. Moreover,
the
prominence given to Isis by the Romans had
made her cult the
principal one in Egypt and reduced the
other gods so that they
hardly had to be considered. We
remember that Ammon and his
priests had fled to Ethiopia
and never returned, while the
glory of Ra and his priesthood
at
Heliopolis had also come to an end.
Many of the apocryphal gospels were written in Egypt
during the early Christian centuries. The writers wove
into
them much from the story of the older gods, believing
that
thus they were honoring the new deities. These
gospels were
never acknowledged and accepted by the
Christian Church and
were not admitted to the canon. It
was permissible and even
recommended to read them, and
there is no question but that
much of the material for the
work of the early Christian
artists was drawn from them.
The resemblance between the
reliefs in the Temple of
Dendera, representing Isis giving
suck to the infant Horus,
and the mosaics of the Virgin and
Child is not merely a
remarkable coincidence. The mass of the
people being
illiterate, religious ideas came to them through
the medium
of pictures, hence the development of the worship
of the
picture in the Eastern Church, and, to a lesser
degree,
perhaps, in the Western. To this particular
picture is also
to be traced the origin of the worship of the
Virgin Mother,
placing her at first on an equality with her
divine son and
then, as she was the most prominent figure,
even exalting
her above Him.
Christianity entered Egypt peacefully, and had its usual
history of alternate toleration and persecution until the
conversion of the Emperor Constantine in the early part
of the fourth century raised it to the dignity of the
national
religion. In the preceding century it had gained
many
adherents
among both Greeks and Egyptians and had
been subjected to
severe persecution especially under the
Emperors Decius and
Diocletian. Different sects of
Christians also arose, and they
speedily began to taste the
joys of quarrelling among
themselves, accompanied by
violence where possible. But in
spite of these troubles, it
maintained itself so that when the
hostility of the ruling
powers was at an end it spread rapidly
over the country.
Naturally, when they got the upper hand they
persecuted
and fought the adherents of the old religions
and the Jews
to whom they owed the foundations of their own
faith.
So the new religion finally triumphed and in the
sixth
century was universal in Egypt. Only the Jews, with
the
stubbornness of their race, remained unconverted or
unsaved.
Paganism retreated up the river, making its
last
stand in the temples at
Philae.
An immediate result of the victory of the Christians was
the transformation of the ancient temples, many of which
were already in ruins, into Christian churches, and the
destruction as far as possible of the pictures of the
heathen gods. The tourist on the Nile sees this
everywhere,
though in some places it is more manifest than
in
others. We noticed it especially at the temple of
Edfu,
where scarcely half
a dozen figures escaped the blind fury
of the zealous
reformers. Besides this type of violent
destruction, which
probably took the form of a sudden
outburst, there was a
peaceable destruction which showed
itself in the painting over
of the heathen decorations and
the substitution of Christian
subjects. We have seen this
in almost all temples. At Dendera
the people preferred
to live in the temple and built a new
church just outside.
At
Karnak they redecorated the festal temple of Thuthmes
III and also the Temple of
Luxor. Some of
the temples
on the west
bank were so far ruined that they were left
untouched. In the
others monastic communities established
themselves, and did
more or less damage, as the
spirit moved them.
Christianity spread into
Nubia
and appropriated temples
there. At Amada the plaster and
mortar used by them
to obliterate the heathen reliefs have
fortunately resulted
in their unusual preservation. It has now
worn off and
we have the originals again. At Wady es-Sebu'a a
picture
of St. Peter has been painted over that of the god
in the
sanctuary and we find Ramses II offering a sacrifice to
a
Christian saint.
A most interesting development of Christianity in Egypt,
and an important contribution from it to the church at
large, was monasticism. It could never have arisen or
developed in a populous or habitable country such as
Europe. But in Egypt the most prominent feature is the
distinction between the cultivable valley and the desert.
The tendency to monastic life was manifest among the
Jews even before the beginning of our era. Sects were
formed which were distinguished from their fellows by
special doctrines and practices. To the inhabitants of the
Nile valley it was natural to flee into the desert to
escape
from danger. During the Decian persecution
numbers
of them did so, especially one Paul, who became
regarded
as their leader and as the founder of Christian
monasticism.
When toleration again came the custom
gradually
grew of fleeing from the evil of the world into
the desert.
The ancient tombs formed ideal habitations for
these holy
men. Such places as the hills back of
Assiut became
regular
colonies of hermits and ascetics. Then they began
to unite and
form communities, sometimes for protection,
and in other cases
because they were brought together by
the common
tie of devotion to an especially holy leader.
These monastic
communities increased rapidly; the land
was full of them, even
overrun by them. In the next
centuries after the coming of the
Muslim they began to
decline, and the few survivors now in
Egypt are poor both
in this world's goods and in the spiritual
character which
should qualify them for the next. But the idea
was taken
up by the entire Christian Church and resulted in
the
establishment of monasteries and convents throughout
the
Christian world.
In 395 A.D. came the partition
of the empire. At that
time Christianity was firmly
established in Egypt. The
Christians, both those in the world
and those who had fled
from it, zealously quarrelled and
fought with words and
blows about various points of doctrines
and belief so that
it was not a very desirable epoch in which
to live.
At the beginning of the seventh century a new religion
appeared. The great prophet Muhammad was born
about 570
A.D. When he was about forty
years of age he
began his preaching. In 622 he was driven out
of his
native city of Mecca and from that date the Muslim
era
begins. He died ten years later. At his death, his
followers
had already started on a career of conquest.
The
recently revived nation of Persia was rapidly
overcome.
The Muslims, fired by religious zeal and delight
in battle
and plunder, pressed on through
Syria to Egypt. After
the capture of
Damascus they met with little resistance.
Christianity fled up
the river to
Nubia and beyond,
following
in the footsteps of the priests of Ammon. The
Muslims
pursued slowly and Christian cities and kingdoms
flourished
there in the early middle ages.
Henceforth Islam was the national religion of Egypt.
I cannot here enter into a discussion of its merits or even
A TYPICAL VILLAGE
give an
outline of its tenets. Its great watchword is
“There is no God
but God” (
i.e. there is only one God)
“and Muhammad is His prophet.” This distinguishes it
from the idolaters believing in many gods, the Jews who
would not acknowledge Muhammad, and the Christians,
with, as it must have appeared to other nations in the
East,
two or three gods. Then there is, of course, a
system of
theology and morality built up around it.
Islam could not and would not assimilate with the
Christianity of Egypt. The age of combinations of religions
had gone by; each jealously guarded itself and drew
its lines
as strictly and definitely as possible. On the whole
the
Muslim and Christian have lived harmoniously together
in
Egypt. There have been persecutions of Christians
in Egypt,
but these have been the result of an outbreak
of fanaticism or
for financial ends.
We can hardly understand the importance of religion in
the East. The United States is a Christian nation; it is
so when considered as a nation and in reference to other
religions. Ask one of its people if he is a Christian or a
Muslim and the answer will be quick and decisive. Ask
him merely if he is a Christian, meaning does he rule his
own life to the utmost of his power by the teachings of
Christ, and the answer is usually less quick and less
decided.
A large number of our people do not profess
their
national religion, and religion does not enter into
the individual
life as it did among ancient nations or as it
does
to-day among eastern nations. Among the latter
every
man has a religion and professes it.
To-day, Muslim, Christian, and Jew live together peacefully
in the land. Religious dividing lines are as strong as
ever but religious hatred cannot show itself as of old.
According to the census of 1897, nearly nine millions,
more than
ninety per cent of the inhabitants, are Muslims.
They are the
ruling and influential class. This is the
natural result of
Islam's having been the religion of the
rulers for nearly
thirteen centuries. Their houses of worship
predominate
throughout the land and Egypt to-day
must be called a Muslim
nation.
Next in number are Christians, about three-quarters of
a million, nearly all of them Copts. These are the real
descendants of the ancient Egyptians. They have inherited
a mixture of Christianity and heathenism which
formed and crystallized there in the fourth and fifth
centuries.
It has not improved, and appears worse
to-day
when compared with the higher types of that
religion in
other lands.
The work of the American missionaries is almost entirely
among the Coptic Christians. They can do little
among the Muslims or Jews, and it is a good, practical
work to lead these believers in a low form of Christianity
to a higher one.
There are a few Jews—not over thirty thousand. As in
other countries, they live together in their own communities,
holding tenaciously to the faith of their fathers.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER XVII
EGYPT OF TO-DAY
THE eighteenth century was an
eventful one for
Egypt. At its beginning the French army was
in
the land engaged in warfare with the English.
Then Mehemet Ali, a foreigner, gained control of the
country and founded the present dynasty of Khedives.
He attempted to free himself entirely from Turkey and
doubtless would have succeeded but for European
interference.
His grandson, the Khedive Isma'il, plunged
the
country into debt, and so paved the way for the
Great
Powers to take it under their charge for the
protection of
their subjects who had invested in its bonds.
The
Suez Canal is at once the
cause of the international
importance of Egypt and one of the
causes of its ruin.
To Egypt it is of no value whatever. To
England it is of
incalculable value, while the other European
Powers are
more or less benefited by it. When the plan was
first
thought of it was supposed that the level of the two
seas
to be connected differed so much that the
construction
of a canal would be difficult and expensive.
Then more
careful surveys showed that there was no difference
in
level and the plan immediately became practicable.
M.
de Lesseps, a Frenchman, took up the idea and pressed
it
upon Sa'id Pasha: he wanted only the concession to
build
the canal; all the money was to be furnished by
French
capitalists. This was all very well, but the result
was
that Egypt
paid most of the cost in labor and money, while
the French
capitalists took the profits. The whole history
is well told
in Penfield's “Present-Day Egypt.” In
1869 the canal was
opened with appropriate festivities and
has since prospered,
more than fulfilling the expectations
of its promoters. In
fact, if it had been honestly built,
with paid labor and
paid-in capital, it would still be a
financial success.
In 1876 the European bondholders began to press their
claims. High rates of interest had been paid by Isma'il
out
of the principal, and of course this could not last very
long.
The establishment of the International Courts was
the first
step in placing Egypt under international control.
This was
quickly followed by the Caisse de la Dette, which
has since
controlled Egyptian finances. Then came what
was known as the
Dual Control, which meant practically
the government, or
rather direction and supervision, of
the country by England
and France. The Caisse de la
Dette was to squeeze all the
money they could for the
creditors and the Dual Control was to
restrict outside
interference to these two Powers. In 1879 the
Khedive
Isma'il was deposed and was succeeded by his son
Tewfik.
The mass of the people always had been taxed to the
limit of their productive power and now the burden was
also
heavy on the upper class. It was one thing when the
whole
country was oppressed and robbed for the benefit
of a resident
military class numbering several thousands,
and quite a
different matter when all the funds extorted
went to pay
exorbitant interest on money which had
never been received in
full and of which the partial receipts
had been squandered. In
the former case, moreover, the
money remained in the country
and was kept in rapid
circulation. Discontent among all
classes arose, and culminated
in 1882 in a
revolt under the lead of the Egyptian
minister of war, Arabi
Pasha. Technically, this was an
uprising against the
government of the Khedive; actually,
it was due to the
misgovernment of his predecessor and
directed against the
foreign Powers. The Egyptian government
was entirely without
resources and its own army
was in open rebellion. It therefore
devolved upon Turkey
to suppress the revolt, and failing her
action, upon England
and France, the partners in the Dual
Control.
France hesitated, and England took the
responsibility,
reëstablished the power of the Khedive,
and thenceforth
controlled Egypt as the representative of the
Powers, the
surviving partner of the Dual Control. This was
the best
thing which could have happened, for these two
nations
were most unsuited for the joint direction of the
country.
They were hereditary foes, though outwardly at
peace and
professing great mutual friendship. But there is a
great
national difference of character which would make
it
impossible for them to work harmoniously together.
The
French are unstable and cautious; the English are
bold
and decided, not always right, but always ready to
act.
The immediate result of Arabi's revolt and its suppression
was the abolition of the Dual Control. France
naturally objected and Turkey refused her approval.
But
these protests were merely formal and availed nothing.
Great
Britain took the position of official adviser to the
government of Egypt, and later, in a famous despatch,
asserted
that her advice must be accepted and followed.
That is her
position to-day and, in a nutshell, the political
position of
Egypt externally and internally. It amounts,
of course, to an
English occupation of the country.
The great objects of the English administration were
the establishment of the internal affairs of the country on
a firm basis,
permitting the proper adjustment of and care
for the national
debt without unduly impoverishing the
country and people, the
reconquest of the Sudan, and the
regulation and storage of the
waters of the Nile upon
which depends all the prosperity of
Egypt.
The debt had already been consolidated into four classes
and a lower rate of interest agreed to by the bondholders.
They were quite willing to accept a fair rate with
certainty
of payment in preference to a higher but
uncertain one.
It only remained, therefore, to properly adjust
the taxes
and the expenditure of whatever surplus revenue
there
might be. This has been done so successfully that
the
hated corvée or forced labor, a species of labor tax,
has
been abolished, taxes of all kinds lowered throughout
the
country, and the actual debt reduced. Egypt is
emphatically
a solvent nation whose securities are held in
high
esteem in the exchanges of the world. Moreover, each
year
a lesser percentage of the tax receipts has to be
applied to
the debt and more is available for expenditures of
public
benefit. The Caisse de la Dette, animated by
France,
has been an obstacle to progress in this matter
but has had
to yield somewhat.
The Sudan has been reconquered, opened to peaceful
settlement and develpoment, made self-supporting, and is
certain to be of great economic value not only to Egypt
and
England but also to the civilized world.
The
barrage below
Cairo was planned and constructed
by French engineers in the time of Mehemet Ali. It had
cost far beyond the estimates and yet was not a success.
After the care and rulership of the country fell into the
hands of the English their most skilful irrigation
engineers
turned their attention to it and succeeded in
making it at
least a partial success at a reasonable
expenditure. When
the war in
the Sudan was ended the plans for building
barrages at
Aswan and
Assiut were again brought forward
and carried out.
Careful computations had made it certain
that the results of
this work would amply pay for it,
but the Caisse de la Dette
refused to allow the necessary
money to be taken from the
Reserve Fund or to be raised
by increasing the debt. So
arrangements were made to
pay for it in instalments covering a
period of thirty years.
Like all such plans, it is expensive
in the end, but it was
forced upon the government.
So the financial control exercised by the Powers is harmful
to Egypt, and that even when no advantage is to be
gained for themselves. This is perhaps only a just
retribution,
although it does not fall upon the right
persons.
The effect of the international control is also
serious in the
hindrances which it places in the way of the
administration
of the law. The resident foreigner is on
quite a different
status from the native. And he is not
necessarily
foreign born; he may have been born in Egypt,
as well
as his father before him. He keeps registered at
his
consulate and so is a foreign resident. If a gambling
den
is opened by a native the Egyptian police can close it
at
once, but if a foreign resident establishes one the
police
cannot enter his house without the consent of his
consul
and the company of a consular official. In every
criminal
case, from murder down, the foreigner stands on a
different
footing from the native. This state of affairs
would
be just in an uncivilized or semi-civilized country.
Egypt
belonged in the latter class until recently, but now
her
department of justice, watched over by the English,
is
equal or superior to that of such countries as Greece
and
Italy.
Egypt has responded quickly to the new conditions of
equitable
laws and taxation, security of life and property,
and honesty
of administration during the last twenty years.
In no country
except those which may be called new countries,
such as South
Africa, has the value of real estate increased
so rapidly.
Fortunes have been made in land both
in the agricultural
districts and in the cities, and this is not
the result of
speculation but is legitimate and permanent.
The natives, even the fellahin, begin to feel that they are
men and have the rights of men. Though they were never
called slaves, the condition of the fellahin was little
better
under the old régime. They were always liable to
forced
and unpaid service in the army and in the corvée.
They
are still subject to service in the army, but this is
true in
many European countries. They are still liable to
be
called out to watch and work on the dykes when the
river
is in flood, but this is a matter of such importance
both to
themselves and to the country that it would not do to
allow
them even to think of refusing. At present the
Egyptian
peasant is a contented laborer; there are no
signs of labor
troubles and other evils which oppress Europe
and America.
In a conversation with old Muhammad Muhassib, of
Luxor, whom I have already mentioned, I
once remarked:
“Muhammad, you are a rich man. What do you do
with
your money?”
“I put it in the bank,” was the reply.
“But twenty-five years ago, before the English came,
what did you do with it?”
“I seldom had any, and when I did I hid it in the
ground.”
Muhammad was the unconscious spokesman for the
nation. If a man had money in the time before the English
army
occupied the citadel at
Cairo he could
not profitably
employ
it—could not even let it be known that he
had it.
Egypt is essentially an agricultural country and its
prosperity is entirely dependent on the success of the
farmer. That, in turn, depends on irrigation and on the
height
of the Nile, so in endeavoring to regulate the rise
of the
river, to make it uniform each year and to provide
for the
proper distribution of the water, the government
is working on
scientific lines to ensure prosperity.
In Roman times wheat was the great export crop of
Egypt; to-day, cotton and sugar take its place. The
former is
raised almost entirely in the Delta and in the
Fayum; most of the sugar is raised in
Upper Egypt.
Both
crops have more than doubled in quantity in the last
few
years, but the fall in market price has been almost as
great,
so that the market value of a double crop is about
the same.
All land that is suitable for these export crops
has to be
devoted to them, for it is very highly taxed; it is
therefore
subject to constant drain, to its ultimate detriment.
The outward evidences of prosperity are visible on every
hand throughout Egypt. Labor-saving machinery of the
most advanced type is found everywhere—in the cotton
and sugar industry, in the harvest-field, and in the work
of irrigation. Often it is found side by side with the
national
primitive implements. A new threshing-machine
may be seen working noisily in the field which the farmer
is ploughing with the old crooked plough, old in the time
of Ramses. A powerful steam pump raising many thousand
gallons of water each minute pants and puffs beside
the shaduf working just as regularly.
Cairo and
Alexandria, as well as some of the larger
towns, have electric trams and lights, telephones, police,
numbered
cabs, and other marks of civilization. There is
a
long-distance telephone between
Alexandria and the
capital. The telegraph and postal
services are well organized
and maintained. The mingling of
the old and the
new is interesting and sometimes amusing. To
see an old
and dignified sheikh, dressed in flowing Oriental
robes,
run after an electric car makes one think that
Cairo is
becoming
an Oriental New York.
The railroads have progressed both in extent and equipment.
Since the English occupation the railroad has been
completed to
Luxor and
a narrow-gauge line built from
there to
Aswan. The old narrow-gauge tramway line
from Isma'ilia to
Port Said has been
changed to standard
gauge and through trains now run between
Cairo and Port
Said. The railway between
Alexandria and
Cairo is well
built
and ballasted, having slight grades and few curves.
An
excellent express service is maintained, with dining
and
sleeping-cars. The railroads encounter few engineering
difficulties in Egypt and enjoy cheap and abundant
labor.
Before the advent of the English their revenues
were pledged
for the payment of interest on the debt, and
in order that the
net earnings might be as large as possible
the expenses of
operation and maintenance were rigidly
fixed at forty-five per
cent—a very low rate. It was impossible
to keep the roads
supplied with satisfactory equipment
or to build new ones. The
inexorable Caisse de la
Dette has been obliged to relax a
little and has had to
allow of larger expenditures and to make
appropriation for
certain extensions. The percentage of
receipts applied to
the national debt has been gradually
diminished, and from
January 1, 1906, the railways will be
free from this burden.
The health of the country is under the charge of an English
sanitary board. The water and food supplies of the
large cities
are subject to their inspection. Egypt is to-day
a very
healthy country; there are no serious endemic
diseases. In
April, 1902, the bubonic plague from India
appeared in
Alexandria and
Port Said. Under the natural
conditions of Egypt it would have swept violently over the
country, attacking and carrying off all susceptible to it.
But
English skill has kept it down to about two hundred
cases per
year—not enough to call it an epidemic but sufficient
to
furnish excuse for occasional quarantines in
Greece and
Turkey. Epidemics of cholera have swept
over the country even
since the English occupation. The
last was in the fall of 1902
and claimed 40,000 victims.
It chanced that the headman of
Ghalioub, a small native
village near
Assiut, went on a pilgrimage to Mecca and
brought back with him a bottle of water from the holy well
Zem Zem. Naturally all the inhabitants wanted a draught
from it. As it was impossible to divide so small a
quantity
among so many persons, the happy idea was
conceived of
pouring it into the village well. It was teeming
with
cholera germs, and even the next day numbers of the
village
inhabitants mysteriously sickened and died. The
water
of Zem Zem is sure to bring one to Paradise, and in
this
case it acted more quickly than usual. From this well
the
infection spread all over Egypt and also over
Palestine
and
Syria. The latter country had even a worse time and
it
took over a year to suppress it.
Public safety is all that can be desired. To be sure there
are crimes and criminals, but we find them in all
countries.
The one desideratum is to give the police in
criminal cases
full power over all, foreigners as well as
natives.
In any discussion of the condition of Egypt to-day the
one great question is: What right has England there?
France says she has no right. France once had an equal
right herself
but definitely and deliberately abandoned it.
On simple
principles of right and wrong England has no
just claim to the
right to rule Egypt. She has admitted
this and offered to
withdraw whenever it becomes safe and
right for her to do so.
But no one wants her to withdraw.
The French bondholders are
satisfied and the French nation
has plundered Egypt to the
extent of her ability. The
native Egyptian does not want her
to go; property values
would sink the moment England began to
withdraw or,
rather, when she began to threaten to, and that
is no mean
index of the state of popular feeling.
The presence of England is a great protection to the
country both from aggressions of foreign nations and from
the exploitation of its resources by financial adventurers and
freebooters, single or associated. The financial history of
the
Suez Canal could not be repeated with
England in
power. Such actions of European Powers as have
occurred
in China within the last few years, or even
more
recently in South America, are also impossible. If
Egypt
was left to her own rule she would constantly be in
danger
of claims for compensation, financial and
territorial, for
injury to the property or persons of foreign
residents, for
which the government or nation would be in no
way to
blame and for which one of the so-called Great
Powers
would not be held nationally responsible. At least,
no
attempt would be made to collect damages by force
from
one of the latter. Nor can concessions be obtained
indiscriminately
from the government, to form a basis in
due
time for the claims for damages or compensation on
some
grounds, and which will be backed up by the naval
force
of the holder's nation. But every encouragement is
given
to legitimate enterprises tending to the improvement
or
development of the country.
Egypt is now a perfectly solvent nation, but every one
knows that this satisfactory condition is not due to their
own work or genius and that it would not endure if their
affairs were placed in their own hands. The Copts, the
descendants of the ancient Egyptians, are a worn-out race,
holding a position in the
Levant similar to that of Italy in
Europe. Both
races or nations have had their period of
greatness and were
once leaders of the world. The Arabs
are a more vigorous type
physically and mentally, but
their mental qualities though
high are not of the kind
which would give them a standing in
the hard-headed,
money-making business world of the present
day.
England's occupation of Egypt is amply justified by its
results. Lord Cromer, then Major Baring, came to Egypt
as British Commissioner in 1879. Upon the restoration
of the Khedive and the formal ending of the Dual Control
he was made British Consul General and also British Agent
and Minister Plenipotentiary. He is therefore the power
behind the throne in Egypt. And his power is above that
throne, although all that he can do is to give advice that
must be followed. The fact that he has held
his office for
more than twenty years, honored and beloved in
Egypt and
trusted implicitly in England through all political
changes,
is the best proof that he is the right man for
his position.
The regeneration of Egypt is his life work and
he and his
country may justly be proud of his success. It will
be a
sorrowful day for Egypt when he has to lay down his
work.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER XVIII
THE SUDAN
THE kingdom of Egypt, ancient
or modern, ended at
or near the second cataract. The next
section of
the Nile valley is closely connected with Egypt.
We have ancient accounts of expeditions far to the south
to the country of the pigmies. It was always a realm of
mystery, the unknown land from which came their beloved
river. In the early part of the last century, besides
the blessings of the river, a steady current of slaves
came
from that direction. So the wise Mehemet Ali set out
to
annex the country and met with little resistance, no
more
than might be expected from people who rather
objected
to being slaves to others however they might
regard the
institution with themselves as owners. The
nominal
authority of Egypt was extended into the dim
unknown
regions up the river. Then the humanitarian
agitation in
England led to expeditions to suppress this slave
trade,
which were more or less honestly supported by the
Egyptian
government. An important object and result of
these
expeditions was the obtaining of actual knowledge of
the
country and river. It was called the Sudan or Beled
es-Sudan, which means “the country of the blacks.”
In the time immediately before the rebellion led by
Arabi in Egypt the Sudan had become open to trade and
settlement and was rapidly attaining to the same state of
civilization which existed farther north. At this juncture,
when the
attention and power of Egypt were so taken up
at home, a
prophet, Muhammad Ahmed by name, began
a career of preaching
and fighting. Such prophets have
been not infrequent in Islam
and have met with varying
and temporary success. The twelfth
Imam of the faith
mysteriously disappeared in
A.D. 879 and a tradition immediately
arose that he would some day return, bringing
further divine
revelations to the world and leading his adherents
to victory
and power. He is known as the Mahdi
and is sometimes spoken of
as the Muslim Messiah,
although the ideas represented by the
words are not exactly
the same. The Arabs have always been
especially
susceptible to religious excitation. The
Nubians and
Sudanese are even more so. When the first
conflicts with
the established power are crowned with success
they become
confident of the genuineness of the new prophet
and
the sanctity of his teaching. So a wave of fanaticism
is
generated which burns fiercely and for a time sweeps
everything before it. England was not yet sufficiently
established in Egypt to command the situation and suppress
the uprising. Several battles were fought which resulted
in victory for the Mahdi. In some of them the
whole Egyptian force, including the English officers, was
totally destroyed. The tide turned in 1889 at the battle
of
Toski, where the Egyptians signally defeated the insurgents
under Wad en-Nejumi, the best general in their
army. It is
noteworthy that Toski is north of Wady Halfa
and that this
dervish army was invading Egypt. This was
really the decisive
battle of the war. Henceforth the victories
fell to the
Egyptians until the great battle of Omdurman
on September 2,
1898, practically closed the war
with Egypt and England
triumphant. The Mahdi, despite
his holiness and protestations
of immortality, died on
June 22,
1885, and was succeeded by Abdallah, better
known as the
Khalifa. He fled from Omdurman and was
not overcome and killed
until November, 1899, more than
a year after the destruction
of his power.
The English occupation of Egypt has done wonders for
that country, but their work in the Sudan bids fair to surpass
the results in Egypt. The Sudan having been reconquered
jointly by England and Egypt, there has been no
opportunity for any of the other great Powers to take part
in its administration. Egypt's part therein is confined to
work and honor; the power rests with England.
The forces of commercial development closely followed
the army. Khartum had been abandoned by the natives
who
made Omdurman their capital. But the English
decided to
rebuild the old city at once. In 1900, two years
after the
battle, a branch of the National Bank of
Cairo was established at Khartum. This institution
is run by
Englishmen and English capital under the Egyptian
government.
It is the most prominent financial institution
in
Egypt and enjoys many valuable privileges. As I
write
this chapter it is about to establish itself in
Abyssinia,
having obtained a charter with valuable and
exclusive
rights from King Menelik. The shares of the new
Bank
of Abyssinia are offered to the public at a premium
of forty
per cent. equivalent to a million dollars. The
opening of
this bank, with the financial facilities which it
will offer and
the control which it is to exercise over the
national
coinage and finances, will be of great benefit,
from the
standpoint of civilized nations, to the world. It of
course
means a strong commercial connection with Egypt and
the
Sudan.
The railway played an important part in the conquest
of the Sudan. It produced a certain amount of superstitious
fear in the
mind of the natives. It made possible the
progress of
Kitchener's army to victory with scientific certainty.
A
brilliant and dashing campaign might have
succeeded. But the
steady progress of the army and railway
at the rate of three
miles each day meant sure victory.
Then in peace the railway
is necessary for the transport of
men and goods to Khartum.
The Nile is practically useless
for transportation purposes
between Wady Halfa and
Khartum. The desert route from
Korosko to Abu Hamed
is
long and costly. So the railway justifies its existence by
its
commercial value. It is a long distance from Khartum
to the
Mediterranean, and another and shorter route to the
sea would
be profitable to the government and valuable
to the country.
It is less than three hundred miles from
Berber to Suakin on
the
Red Sea and a railway is under
construction. It will be in operation in 1906. This will
give the country an export and an import route to the sea
and great results are expected. It will also benefit the
tourist bound to India.
As in Egypt, the irrigation problem is important. But
the country is not so entirely dependent on the river, for
there is some rainfall. Moreover, Egypt being now the
more
important country and, together with England, in
control of
the Sudan, the amount of water used by the
latter is carefully
regulated. From the middle of July to
the end of January there
is an ample supply for all. During
the rest of the year the
people of the Sudan have to
obtain permission from the
government to use the water
for irrigation, for the supply in
Egypt must not be interfered
with.
At present most tourists go only to Khartum. A few
go farther up the river for shooting or merely for the sake
of
penetrating an uncivilized country without being subjected
to physical
discomfort. The novelty of the trip
appeals to them. The real
territory for the tourist is or
will be the country along the
river between Wady Halfa
and Abu Hamed. There was once a
railroad as far as
Kerma, two hundred miles, but it has been
abandoned.
So the journey would now have to be made with
camels
and camp. But the country will doubtless soon be
reopened
to the traveler in some way. A line from Abu
Hamed to Dongola is in contemplation and would reach
many of the ruins.
I have already had occasion to mention Semneh and
Kummeh, the frontier fortresses built in the time of the
twelfth dynasty. Inside of the fortifications at Semneh
there
is a ruined temple founded by Usertesen III, restored
and
added to by Thuthmes III and Amenhotep III. Kummeh
has a
larger temple, built by Thuthmes II and Thuthmes
III. From
here to Amara, nearly one hundred miles,
the interest is
chiefly in battlefields of the late war. The
country is not
devoid of scenery, though it is of a barren
and desolate type.
At Amara there is a temple built by Amenhotep III.
The same king also built a fine temple at Soleb the plan
and
style of which are said to be similar to those of the
Temple
of
Luxor. Seti I built his temple at
Sesebi.
Kerma is at the third cataract. Near it are
granite quarries
from which the stone for the temples and
statues was
obtained. On the island of Arkaw there are two
colossal
statues similar to those of Ramses II at
Memphis.
Near Marawi are the ruins of Napata the ancient
capital of Ethiopia. This was the center of the power
which
waxed strong when Egypt declined after the end of
the
nineteenth dynasty and whose kings later ruled Egypt
until
they were driven back hither by the Assyrians. Following
the custom of
the early Egyptian kings they made
their tombs in the form of
pyramids. There are quite a
number of pyramids here and in the
vicinity, according to
one writer about one hundred large ones
and the same
number of smaller size. None of them are very
large.
The tallest are only about sixty feet in height.
They are
built at a steeper angle than those in Egypt, hence
are
more slender and with a sharper point. As only
members
of the royal family could have pyramid tombs we
have
evidence of a numerous royal house. Many of them
probably
belonged to children.
A little farther on we come to Gebel Barkal, the holy
mountain. Here are more pyramids and two interesting
temples built by Piankhi and Taharqa, both of which have
already been mentioned. The great stone ram, now one
of the
treasures of the museum at Berlin, was brought
from here by
Lepsius. Other things have been found here
and taken to London
and
Cairo.
A few miles below Abu Hamed the railway from Wady
Halfa reaches the Nile. Thence it follows the course of
the
river to Khartum.
Berber is an important place and is about to be still
more so, for it is the junction of the route to Suakin.
Then we come to the Atbara, the first tributary of the
Nile as
we go from the sea. An important battle was
fought near here
April 8, 1898, resulting in a glorious victory
for the
Anglo-Egyptian army. The railway crosses
the Atbara on a
magnificent iron bridge of six spans each
two hundred feet
long. It was built by an American
company. Speed in
constructing it was a prime necessity,
as the advance of the
army could only keep pace with the
railway. The English firms
who bid for the work wanted
considerable time and the
Americans got the contract
because they
promised to do it in a remarkably short time.
There was
considerable outcry in England against Kitchener
for not
giving the work and the honor and profit connected
therewith
to an English firm, but he could not wait.
About forty miles from the Atbara is another group of
pyramids, known as the pyramids of Meroë. In one of
them a
very interesting and valuable treasure consisting
of ornaments
and jewelry was found. It is now in Berlin.
They date from the
centuries immediately before and
after the birth of Christ.
There seems to have been a
flourishing kingdom here after
Napata had declined. The
Romans probably came here, but do not
seem to have conquered
the country. It became Christianized in
due time
and remained a Christian nation until comparatively
recent
times. Little is known of its life and history.
A
proper investigation would disclose much material for
examination
and study. Possibly some light would also
be
thrown on the history of Egypt.
Shendi is another large town, famous in slave-trading
days. Then we come to the village of Ben Naga. Near
it is
the temple of the same name. A day's journey in the
desert are
the ruins of Naga, with at least four temples of
a late date.
All of this country is full of ancient remains, dating from
1000
B.C. to 500
A.D. It is almost untouched by the
explorer
and has not been examined by an Egyptologist
since
the visit of Lepsius sixty years ago. Yet the
country is
now perfectly safe and freely open to the excavator
and
tourist. I feel sure that we shall have some work with
important
results and information before long. The best
places for excavations and scientific study would probably
be at Soleb, Gebel Barkal and Meroë. Near Khartum are
the ruins of an ancient city called Soba. It is thought by
some to be
the Sheba mentioned in the Bible, though this
is only
conjecture and rather improbable. There are
accounts of
ancient ruins in other parts of the country and
they will
doubtless be investigated.
As in Egypt, the real wealth and prosperity of the Sudan
lies in agriculture. The problems of irrigation and
transportation
must first be solved. Cotton and sugar will
be
the great crops. Experiments in the culture of cotton
have
met with marked success. Then there are the
peculiar
products of the region, such as dates, gum,
ostrich feathers,
some ivory, and similar articles. Probably
some of the
valuable East Indian spices could be cultivated.
We have
testimony of the mineral wealth from the ancient
monuments.
The old mines have been sought for and it is
thought that some have been found. Stock companies
have been formed in London and glowing accounts of
the rich promise of the mines, flavored with references to
ancient history, spread abroad. Companies have also been
formed for the commercial development of the country.
They are encouraged by the government and when directed
by capable men and backed by sufficient capital have
every prospect of success.
The Sudan is a great country. It extends through
nearly twenty degrees of latitude, all in the tropics. Almost
all of it is habitable or can be made so. The ravages
of the
slave trade and the barbarous rule of the Mahdi and
Khalifa
with their wars and slaughters have almost depopulated
it.
Peace has now come to stay, and among
such a people peace
means a rapid increase in numbers.
On the whole, the natives
take kindly to the new state of
affairs. Of course the savage
and semi-civilized chieftain
chafes somewhat at the restraints
of civilization. If he has
a quarrel with a neighbor he wants
to fight it out and does
not like to
have a higher power forbid him. He does not
want justice and
protection. Very often he prefers injustice
or at least an
opportunity to secure it for his opponent.
He would prefer the
risks of being unprotected to the tameness
of government
protection. But the horrors of the
time of the Mahdi and his
emirs were too much for most
of them and are still vividly
remembered. So they quietly
accept the other extreme. Lord
Cromer said recently:
“Justice with sound political and fiscal
policy is the only
way to govern the Sudan or, indeed, any
other country.”
This is very true, with perhaps the added
words “in the
twentieth century.”
The Sudan has a great future. This statement may be
extended to include all Africa. It used to be called the
Dark
Continent, but the significance of this term, so far
as it
meant hidden or impenetrable, has passed away.
The Sudan
comprehends a large part of Africa. Nowhere
is there a more
undeveloped land agriculturally, and nowhere
is there a land
with more possibilities in that direction.
It would be easy to
indulge in more or less definite
prophecies about the
immediate future, but it may be
better to glance at the
results of the last seven years and
let the reader draw his
own conclusions. When the country
was reconquered by England
and Egypt it was almost
depopulated. The few inhabitants were
poor and ignorant.
All the fighting men had perished at the
hands of
the Mahdi or fighting for him and his faith. There
were
no crops for export; each miserable negro was
thankful
if he could raise sufficient food to barely
support life. A
very small tax budget was expected for the
first year. The
results exceeded the estimates, and have in
each following
year; trade and cultivation have revived as if
by magic
and the Sudan is paying a large part of its expenses.
The
population is
increasing naturally and by immigration.
Egypt is the great
testimony of the ability of the English
to govern a backward
race. The Sudan is an even greater
credit to her, and the
future of Egypt and the Sudan is
inseparably bound together,
for the former is now the
master and civilizer of the latter
and thus controls the
all-important river. The Nile must be
controlled throughout
its whole course by one power, and that
power must
be Egypt guided by England.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER XIX
THE RIVER
OUR attention during our
voyage has been chiefly
directed to the temples and other
remains of
ancient Egypt. The wonderful river on which
we have been journeying has also interested us. We have
come to Egypt to see its marvels and there is nothing more
strange and interesting than its river. I am always
attracted
toward rivers, and know of no pleasanter way
to
travel or to see the country than from a river steamer.
A
trip on the Rhine, the Elbe, the Danube, or the Volga
will
give one the best idea of their respective countries.
Only
a portion of the former is included in the usual
tour. The
others, although navigated by excellent steamers,
are
almost unknown to the tourist.
The Nile is the oldest river in the world in the sense of
being known to the human race. At the very dawn of
history we find the river with its yearly rise and fall
just
as we know it to-day. Ages before the coming of
the
Egyptians to Egypt it had been making the country
for
them. For Egypt is truly “the gift of the Nile,” as
Herodotus puts it. And if the Nile were to cease, Egypt
would die surely and quickly.
The ancient Egyptians apparently knew nothing about
the sources of the river or the causes for its yearly rise,
which meant so much to them. They sailed up it past
the second
and third cataracts and found the same river
which they
knew at
Memphis and
Thebes. To them it
came from the land
of heat, inhabited by barbarian negroes.
They recognized fully
the importance of the overflow of
the river to their country,
and in very early times registered
its height at Semneh and at
Aswan.
If the ancient Egyptians were ignorant of the sources
of the river and the causes of the important phenomena,
the
Romans and Arabs were no more enlightened. Even
down to very
recent times the question of the source of
the Nile was one of
the great unsolved geographical problems.
After centuries of
surmises, sometimes with a little
truth at the bottom of them,
Lieutenant John Speke, in
1858, discovered Lake Victoria
Nyanza. Convinced
though he was that it was the source of the
Nile, he could
not be sure of it until five years later, when
he found
the outlet of the river and followed it northward.
Now
the course of the river is well known, and it may even
be
said to be under English rule for its entire length.
Lake Victoria Nyanza is the source of the Nile. In
order to give the river the greatest possible length and to
have it include the entire basin drained by it, geographers
consider the Kagera as its first stage. This river flows
into
the lake from the southwest and has a length of three
hundred
and sixty miles. From Lake Victoria to Lake
Albert the stream
is known as the Victoria Nile. Thence
to the Sobat it is
called the Albert Nile. On this section
it receives water from
numerous tributaries, especially from
the southwest. From the
Sobat to Khartum its name is
the White Nile. At Khartum, the
Blue Nile, coming from
the mountains of Abyssinia, joins the
White Nile, and
thenceforth the combined stream is called
simply the Nile.
The White Nile is the longer stream, but the
Blue Nile has
the larger volume of water and also brings the
greater
deposit of
the Nile mud which is so prized in Egypt. Below
Khartum the
Atbara is the only tributary of the Nile.
It is a very erratic
stream, dry for eight months and a
torrent for the rest of the
year.
The total length of the main river, from the sources of
the Kagera to the sea, is calculated at 6,350 kilometers,
or
3,923 miles, thus making it one of the longest rivers
in the
world.
Its most prominent and interesting feature is the annual
inundation. The ancients knew not the cause and
ascribed it to the gods. In the country of the great lakes
the rainy season lasts from February to November, with
maximum periods in April and October. Below the lakes
the rain falls from April to October with maximum in
August. In Abyssinia, at the headwaters of the Blue Nile,
and the Atbara, the heavy rains also come in August.
These rains are the cause of the rise of the river. It is
calculated that in time of flood it requires fifty days
for
the water of the White Nile to travel from the lakes
to the
sea, and twenty-five days for the Blue Nile.
Therefore
the full effect of the rise in all these streams
reaches Egypt
early in October.
Let us look at the yearly story of the river in Egypt.
About the middle of June it begins to rise. The tradition
is that on the night of June 17th a miraculous drop falls
in the river which causes it to rise. This is called the
“leilat en-nuqta,” or night of the drop, and used to be
celebrated as a great festival. The holiday is still kept
up
but is constantly losing in interest. During July the
river
rapidly increases. Its height on the
Roda gauge used to
be
announced daily by criers; now the daily papers spread
the
news.
Another interesting ceremony and festival which has
lately passed
away was the cutting of the dam of the canal
which carried the
water through
Cairo. This occurred
when the river had reached the mark of sixteen cubits on
the
Roda Nilometer. It
was a very interesting and typical
Cairene festival. The canal
has now been filled up and
serves as the highway for the new
electric trams.
The river rises still more rapidly in August. It usually
reaches its maximum early in October. During that
month it remains about stationary and begins to fall in
November. During the tourist season, from January to
April, it is continually falling, reaching its lowest level
in
the spring.
Up to very recently the rise and fall were entirely
natural and beyond the control of man. Vast works have
now
been completed or planned which will enable the
regulation of
the stream and permit the storage of much of
the water which
has heretofore gone to waste in the Mediterranean.
So it is
losing the character of a river and
becoming merely a great
canal.
The irrigation is now measured by the gauge at
Aswan.
A maximum rise of less than six
and a half meters means
an insufficient flood. About eight
meters makes a very
satisfactory flood, while if it gets above
eight and three-quarters
there is too much water and great
damage results.
As the level of the river is usually below
that of
the land, the real work of irrigation consists in
raising the
water to such a height that it will flow to the
desired
fields.
The shaduf is the common and time-honored device for
lifting the water. The simplest form consists of two posts
about five feet apart with a cross-piece connecting them.
On
the latter is poised a long pole weighted at one end
and with
a bucket for the water at the other. The operator
pulls the
bucket down to the stream and fills it. Then
the counterpoise
lifts it and it is emptied. A simple
shaduf is managed by one
man. There are usually two
placed side by side. A shaduf will
raise the water five or
six feet, and if it has to be lifted
to a greater height the
necessary shadufs are erected, each
raising to the one
above. Sometimes a series of four or five
is required.
The shaduf-workers are the lowest and
poorest-paid fellahin,
earning three to five piasters per day,
and the work is
hard. It is really a human machine, and all
parts of it
must work uniformly.
The sakiyeh is another device for hoisting water. It
consists of an endless chain of earthen jars. These are
connected with a toothed upright wheel which is turned
by a
horizontal wheel. The power is usually furnished by
a bullock,
but a mule, donkey, or even a camel may be
seen turning the
sakiyeh. Sometimes we find an incongruous
pair, such as a
camel and a donkey. Harmony is
not considered by the native
workman; he thinks only of
getting the water for his fields
and has to use whatever
force is at his disposal. A small boy
rides on a peculiar
seat and drives. He contributes to the
picturesqueness of
the scene and if the visitor comes within
reach is quite
sure to beg for bakshish.
There is a general impression that the Nile is not a
scenic river; even that it may be dull and monotonous.
It
is true that much of the traveler's interest is derived
directly and indirectly from people who dwell on its banks,
The fellahin at work in the fields, the workers at the shaduf
and sakiyeh, the village girls at the river bank filling their
water-jars, helping each other to place them on their heads
and marching off in Indian file—all these pictures make
scenery and can be legitimately so regarded. Such pictures
make up the
album of the life of Egypt and he who
has not seen them must
not think he has seen the country.
And they cannot be seen
except from the river steamer;
even those who make the short
river trip cannot see them
in all their variety.
And the river is not devoid of natural scenery. It is
not, perhaps, such a river as the Rhine; yet it has its
mountains on both sides, in some places near the bank,
even
rising right up from the river, as the Gebel Abulfeda,
at
other places retreating toward the horizon and leaving
the
rich, green pasture-land or the yellow fields of grain
to fill
the foreground. All this can be seen from the deck
of the
steamer as it winds slowly up the river or from any
slight
elevation on shore. Certain parts of the river, such
as
Luxor and
Aswan, are especially beautiful. At the
former
place the hills fall back from the shores on both
sides and
are thereby lowered and softened. Seen in the
glow of an
Egyptian sunset the picture is anything but
tame. The same may
be said of
Aswan and indeed of
many other places. The course of the Nile through
Nubia is full of scenery.
Philæ and its surroundings exhibit
some of the most beautiful
views in the world. Then
comes the gorge of Kalabsheh, a rocky
defile with changing
scenes every moment.
Korosko and its mountains give us
another type—rugged barrenness. In fact, the whole
course of
the Nile in
Nubia teems with scenery.
I must not forget to mention the date palm, the tree of
Egypt. During the first part of the trip from
Cairo we
see everywhere
the tall, slender trunks with their lofty,
bushy crowns. In
spring, clusters of blossoms hang under
the long leaves and
slowly change into bunches of yellow
dates which are gathered
in the fall. Farther up, above
Baliana, the dum palm, shorter,
and with its graceful
branches,
becomes the prominent tree, the change being so
gradual that
we hardly notice it. The palm is not the only
tree, for we
find acacia, the shittim, the tree from which
the Ark of the
Covenant was made, and in the villages occasional
gardens with
lemons, oranges, and figs.
The picture of the life on the river would not be complete
without a word about the river boats, called felukas or
markib. They are all about the same size and all are
rigged alike. Their pointed lateen sails are always in
sight. Sometimes several of them form an especially
interesting
group for the artist with the camera or for
the traveler
who delights in the quiet contemplation of such
views.
Is it monotonous? I have heard people who had not
been on the river say that they thought it would be monotonous.
I myself have made six complete trips by
steamer all the
way and am eagerly looking forward to
the seventh. I pity the
tourist who cannot enjoy the life
of the river and is always
studying how he can most
rapidly cover the ground and return
to his native land.
Probably he does not appreciate the beauty
of that
country, but lives his life there without a thought of
the
outer world except as regards the weather.
On the tourist portion of the river, from
Cairo to the
second cataract, there is
constant and varied scenery. The
very fact that some parts of
it are less striking than others
prevents it from being
monotonous. For there is a monotony
of grandeur as well as of
the commonplace; just as
the latter can be made interesting,
so the former can and
does lose its beauty when it becomes
all-pervading. So a
scene which in Switzerland is not
considered worthy of
notice would be made much of in a
less-favored region.
I cannot speak of the river above the second cataract
from my own observation. From Wady Halfa to Khartum
VILLAGE ON THE RIVER
the scenery
is similar to that in Egypt and
Nubia.
Nowhere is the fertile strip very wide and sometimes it is
entirely absent even on both banks. There are numerous
islands and occasional series of rapids. Black rocks, worn
and polished by the water, alternate with stretches of
river
and sand. The population is scanty and less
prosperous
than in Egypt. The variety of scenery probably
equals
that of the lower river, perhaps surpasses it.
Above Khartum the Blue Nile flows through a flat and
monotonous country until it reaches the borders of Abyssinia.
The White Nile flows for many miles through
a level region
with luxuriant vegetation. In fact, it is
sometimes choked by
the vegetable growth which becomes
matted and almost solid.
This is called the sudd, and
occasionally blocks the river so
as to entirely interfere with
its flow and make it necessary
to cut through it with
steamers. In this part of its course
the river forms or
flows through some large lakes, such as
Lake No. Above
these lakes the country again becomes hilly,
with almost a
temperate vegetation. In its passage out of the
great lake
there are beautiful waterfalls, such as the
Murchison Falls
and the Ripon Falls.
A short generation ago few white men had seen this
country, and they had traveled for many months, sometimes
enduring great hardships, to reach it. Now it is
well known
and entirely accessible. Less than a generation
hence it will
take its place among the pleasure and
even health-resorts of
the world, connected by steamers
and railroads with the Sudan
and Egypt on the north, the
Indian Ocean on the east, the Cape
Colonies on the south,
and probably also with the Congo Free
State and its ports
on the Atlantic.
[Back to top]
CHAPTER XX
PRACTICAL ADVICE
A CHAPTER on this subject may
be of interest and
value to the prospective traveler and
perhaps not
uninteresting to the general reader. However
much one may be interested in the history, religion, and
art of Egypt, the practical questions of how to get there,
how to plan the trip, and what preparations to make for it
assume importance when he actually decides to go. It is
often very difficult to obtain reliable information and
advice
from friends who have indeed been to Egypt but
whose
experience is usually based on only one trip, the
conditions
of which may have been quite different from
those now
prevailing. Conditions change from year to year,
usually
in the direction of improvement.
The first elementary question is as to the proper season
for the trip. February and March are, all things
considered,
the best months of the year in Egypt. This
fact is
so generally known and so universally accepted that
Cairo and the whole
country, with their limited facilities and
accommodations,
find it difficult to take care of the visitors.
January is not
an unpleasant month, nor is December; the
Nile steamers are
running and all the hotels are open and
not overcrowded. The
river is still high but falling. Few
tourists visit Egypt
during the rest of the year. From the
first of April to
September the weather is warm, sometimes
uncomfortably
so. In April, May, and June the Nile is
low. In October and
November the weather is good but
the river is too high and too
rapid for the steamers. Egypt
is a very healthy country at all
times of the year. I have
no hesitation in saying that it may
be visited even in the
height of summer with perfect safety;
of course it is hot,
but so is all the world north of the
equator. I have been
in
Cairo in August and can say that I have been more uncomfortable
in the same month in Paris or London as well
as in our American cities.
Having settled on the time for the tour, the next question
is how to get to Egypt. I am writing in America. The
traveler whose objective point is Egypt and who wishes
to go directly thither will probably choose the
Mediterranean
route. The North German Lloyd was the
first
company to put first-class steamers on this route;
they
maintain a regular service to Naples, stopping at
Gibraltar.
The Hamburg-American Line has a similar
service. During
the winter months the famous “Deutschland”
usually
makes two voyages. The White Star Line has large,
fast,
and comfortable steamers; they stop at Ponta Delgada
in
the Azores, giving an opportunity to see this quaint
old-world
city. They also stop at Gibraltar and sometimes
at
Algiers. A few trips are made to
Alexandria. The
traveler who can
arrange to go at these times will find this
the best way of
reaching Egypt from America. The
Cunard Line also has a
Mediterranean service. This
winter two of their new steamers,
the “Caronia” and the
“Carpathia,” will run on this route.
There are other lines
to Italy, such as the Italian Line and
the Fabre Line. The
steamers are large and new but make no
stops. Many
people prefer them and the fares are somewhat
lower
than on the other lines. But the difference is not
much,
and for a
winter passage the larger steamers are preferable.
All lines allow stopover at Gibraltar. Two weeks is
sufficient time to visit Granada, Cordova, Madrid, Seville,
and Cadiz. Steamers run almost daily from Gibraltar to
Tangier. Of course the ticket on to Italy is only available
by
the line on which you have come from America.
The stay of the steamer at Gibraltar is usually long
enough to drive to the fortifications, where a soldier is detailed
to take visitors into the galleries. The views over
the neutral ground are strange and interesting. After the
return from the rock the drive can be extended to the
Spanish
town of a Linea or to the quaint fishing village
of
Catalan Bay.
Many travelers, especially those who start early in the
season, will stop over in Italy. They can go from Naples
to
Alexandria by the
White Star Line on their through
steamers or by the North
German Lloyd which has a
weekly service during the winter.
There is also an Italian
mail steamer leaving Naples every
Wednesday and stopping
for a few hours at Messina. This is the
cheapest way,
and if one could be sure of good weather or is a
good sailor
would be very satisfactory. The boats are small
and sometimes
very uncomfortable. During the winter the
Messageries
Maritimes steamers call at Naples on their
way
from Marseilles to
Alexandria. There are also steamers
of the North
German Lloyd and Orient lines almost every
week to
Port Said. The Peninsular and Oriental
mail
steamers sail from Brindisi every Sunday evening,
reaching
Port Said on Wednesday morning. The
Austrian Lloyd
has a good weekly service from Trieste and
Brindisi to
Alexandria.
Tourists from England or Central Europe can take the
French
steamer at Marseilles or the Austrian Lloyd at
Trieste, or
they can go to Naples or Brindisi by rail and
thence by
steamer.
One can also go via Athens, but it is more usual to return
by that route.
The steamers visually come to the wharf in
Alexandria,
and a special train is
ready to take the passengers to
Cairo.
The custom-house examination is lenient and rapid.
Alexandria is worthy of a
visit, though it is perhaps best
to leave it for the return.
Those who leave the country by
Port Said should spend a day here if
possible. There are
two good hotels, the Khedivial and the
Abbat; the former
is the best, but the traveler will often
find the Abbat the
more comfortable because less crowded.
Alexandria is cursed by a
horde of worse than useless
rascals who call themselves
dragomans. All the real dragomans
are in
Cairo, for no competent man would stay in
Alexandria in hope of an occasional day's
work when a
steamer arrives. After the bulk of the passengers
have
gone to
Cairo
a fairly good valet-de-place can be secured
and a drive around
the city arranged. Pompey's Pillar is
the landmark of ancient
Alexandria. A little farther on
are the so-called catacombs, a very interesting cemetery
of
the second century after Christ which was discovered
in
1900. There is also a museum containing antiquities
found in the city and neighborhood. The Mahmudiyeh
Canal and bazaars are interesting to the newcomer. All
this can be done in about three hours and the afternoon
train taken for
Cairo.
Do not go by night or in the evening.
The railway ride is an
excellent introduction to
Egypt. We first skirt the shores of
Lake
Mareotis. During
the siege of
Alexandria, in 1801, the
English cut a
channel to admit the waters of the Mediterranean
into the
lake. They
thought it would be easy to do this and later
to restore the
lake to its original condition. This has
proved impossible,
although much money has been expended
on dykes and pumping
machinery. At Kafr ed-Dawer
we come to the first cotton
fields. They give a rich
color to the country in August when
the plant is in blossom.
Damanhur is a large town and the first to
remind us of
ancient Egypt. The name is from Time-en-Hor,
“City
of Horus.” At Kafr ez-Zayat we get our first view of
the
Nile; the railway crosses it on a high iron bridge.
This is
the
Rosetta
branch, the largest of the mouths of the
river.
Tanta is a large and important
city. A famous and
holy saint, Seyyid Ahmed el-Bedawi, is
buried here, and
pilgrims come from all over the Muslim world
to visit his
tomb. There are three annual fairs in his honor.
The
most important is in August to commemorate his
birthday.
Of late years, owing to fear of plague and
cholera, the fairs
have been hampered by the regulations of
the health
authorities and sometimes even prohibited. So they
have
declined. I attended the August fair in 1892, when it
was
estimated that upwards of half a million of the
faithful
came to pay their respects to the saint and also
to enjoy
the privileges of traffic and entertainment. There
were no
tourists and few Europeans. The people were
good-humored,
quiet, and orderly. While the serious
religious
object of the occasion was not neglected, most
of the
assemblage devoted themselves to the amusements. The
people of Egypt can be best seen here and at other similar
gatherings. Some tourists are anxious to see the life of
the people; here we have natives from every part of the
country, the rich, the well-to-do, and the poor. Even the
Bedawin are here, with their picturesque black
camel's-hair
tents. A
number of professional entertainers help to
amuse and delight
the visitors. Jugglers, sword-swallowers,
dervishes, and
dancing girls are numerous. So I
advise gentlemen tourists who
are interested in the people
to visit one of these fairs if
possible.
Benha is a large place, the
junction of the railway to
Port Said and
Suez. It is called
Benha el-Asal because
of the story that a jar of its
famous honey was sent as a
present to the prophet. It is also
noted for its excellent
fruit, especially oranges and
mandarins.
The latter are called “Yusuf Effendi,” which means
“Sir Joseph,” and thereby hangs an ancient tale connected
with
Biblical history. We all remember how Joseph, the
son of
Jacob, the Hebrew, was sold as a slave to the Egyptians
and
his experiences in their country. The wife of his
master,
Potiphar, conceived a violent and unlawful passion
for the
young man. It was as difficult to keep such a thing
hidden
then as it is to-day, and the scandal was quickly
noised
abroad among the neighbors, who, in their natural
disapprobation, were inclined to act coldly toward the
erring
lady. So she invited them to an afternoon company
at her home,
similar, doubtless, to that pictured in the tomb
of Nakht at
Thebes. She provided these
thin-skinned
oranges for their refreshment and gave them
very sharp
knives with which to peel them. At the proper
moment
Joseph was introduced. He was so handsome that
the
attention of the guests was entirely directed to him
and all
cut their fingers with the sharp knives. Then the
hostess
remarked that if they who
saw him for a few moments
were so
strongly affected, she was excusable for she
saw him constantly. Hence this species of orange
is known
in Arabic as “Yusuf Effendi.”
After leaving
Benha all eyes
are looking for the pyramids.
Soon they are
seen, on the left of the railroad.
Although several miles
beyond
Cairo, they loom up distinctly
on the horizon, sometimes looking as if lifted up by
a mirage.
Cairo has excellent hotels
which compare favorably with
the large establishments of
Europe. The great trouble
from the standpoint of both owners
and patrons is the
short season, which makes them overcrowded
for a couple
of months and almost empty and unprofitable for
the rest
of the year.
Shepheards is the oldest and most renowned. Some
years ago it was the only first-class hotel in the city. It is
still an excellent hostelry but can no longer claim to be the
best or only one. Its reputation, however, is so good and
so
widespread that many tourists would not think of going
elsewhere.
The Savoy is the best and most fashionable hotel. Those
who go to
Cairo for
the winter and who wish to participate
in the social events of
the season establish themselves here.
Therefore the supply of
good rooms for guests for short
stays is limited.
The Continental Hotel best meets the requirements of
the tourist whose stay is short and who comes to see
Cairo and Egypt. It is commodious,
first-class, and well situated.
The Angleterre is near by and
belongs to the same company.
It is suited to those who wish a
quiet family hotel.
The
Gezireh Palace is under
the same management as
Shepheards. It has a good reputation
but is on the other
side of the river, rather far from the
city for the short-stay
tourist. A new hotel called the
National is to be opened
this winter. There are also rumors of
new and palatial
hotels soon to be built.
There are several other hotels, all entirely comfortable
but for
various reasons not quite of the same rank as those
just
mentioned. Such are the Hotel du
Nil, the
Bristol,
and the Eden Palace. Then there are pensions kept
by
German and French ladies where comfortable quarters
can be obtained at moderate rates.
Cairo ranks as a rather
expensive city for the tourist.
The short season makes prices
high. All luxuries, and
many of the necessities of civilized
life, have to be brought
from Europe. Such countries, where
the wants of the
people are few and easily obtained, are apt
to be expensive
for those who demand a higher grade of living.
I should not consider
Cairo
the best place for invalids
during the winter. The nights are
often cold and damp.
Conditions are better at the Mena House,
near the pyramids,
or at
Helwan. Even the visitor who is not an invalid
should stay a day or two at the Mena House so as to get
the
full impression of the great pyramids.
Most travelers will employ a dragoman. He is useful
but by no means indispensable. The information which
he
furnishes may or may not be correct. It is always open
to
question. The intelligent man will depend upon his
books for
knowledge and let the dragoman guide him and
make himself
useful as interpreter and errand boy. If
you take him to the
bazaar to help you make your purchases
he will of course get
the commission. He is entitled
to it by immemorial custom,
which is not wholly dead in
our own country. And it does not
necessarily follow that
you pay more than if you went alone.
To buy wisely and
at lowest rates in the East requires some
experience which
the stranger cannot expect to have within a
few days of his
arrival. And it requires sound, practical
knowledge, a
very different thing from a talent for sharp
bargaining.
It is almost unnecessary for me to say that all tourists
should ascend
the river. To come from America or even
from Europe and spend
a few days in
Cairo only is, to put
it mildly, inadvisable. To come for a few days and try to
make the Nile trip by rail is almost equally bad. If it is
that or nothing, it would be difficult and harsh to advise
you not to come; still I must say that Egypt is a country
which absolutely cannot be seen, much less appreciated,
in a hurry.
Cairo is
merely a modern city, interesting on
account of its monuments
of mediæval Saracen art and
because of the, to us, picturesque
and interesting life and
character of its people. It has
nothing of ancient Egypt
to show us except the treasures of
the museum. The
obelisk at
Heliopolis, the
pyramids of
Gizeh, and the tombs
at
Saqqara are accessible from the city and provide something
ancient for those who can go no farther.
I usually recommend that the trip up the river be made
at once upon arrival and
Cairo visited after the return,
although I do not
consider this a matter of great importance.
But I will briefly
outline here a program for a
week in
Cairo. I believe that half of each day is all that
can wisely be spent in active sightseeing.
Let us begin with Monday. Try to get to the citadel
by nine o'clock and take your first view of the city from the
parapet. Then see the mosque of Mehemet Ali. The
mosques of
Sultan Hassan and Ibn Tulun will consume
the rest of the
morning. The afternoon can be given to
the bazaars.
Tuesday morning may be spent in the museum. A
drive
to
Heliopolis will not be too fatiguing
for the afternoon.
Rest on Wednesday morning so that you may
have
a good afternoon at the pyramids. Take them
leisurely,
and if there is moonlight dine at the Mena
House or come
again in the evening. If you make the ascent you
will see
the wisdom of
resting the next morning. But the whole
day cannot be wasted,
so the university mosque of El
Azhar and the tomb-mosques of
the Caliphs may be visited
in the afternoon. Friday is the day
for the howling
dervishes (if you must see them),
old Cairo, and the
Island
of
Roda. The identical spot where Moses
was
found in the bulrushes is pointed out. Saturday can
be
given to another visit to the museum and bazaars. If
you
do not go up the river you must devote a day to
Saqqara.
There are three ways of making the river trip. The
most luxurious plan, and in every way the best for those
blessed with leisure and wealth, is to hire a dahabiyeh.
But
this way is becoming so out of consonance with the
hurrying
life of the present century that even those who
are able to
select it are disposed to hasten their trip by the
aid of
steam. A steam dahabiyeh or an ordinary one
assisted by a
steam tug enables the traveler to make the
trip rapidly or
leisurely, to see everything or nothing, and
in general to
have just such a trip as he may wish. It
is expensive, but,
for a family or party of six to ten persons,
little more so
than the trip by steamer.
The tourist steamer is best suited to the majority of
travelers. It is easy to criticise the itinerary and say that
the steamer ought to stop at more places, but to do so
would involve more time, and the modern traveler is apt
to
wish to shorten the time rather than to increase it.
At present there are three lines of steamers. The tourist
service of Messrs. Thomas Cook & Son is excellent.
Their fare is fifty pounds sterling and staterooms are
allotted in order of registration. The society on these
steamers is a little more fashionable than on the other
lines,
a fact which may or may not be an advantage. The
firm
of Cook & Son is an old and honorable one.
They were
the first
tourist firm to establish themselves in Egypt. I
do not,
however, think that it is quite right for them to give
the
impression that they are the only ones there now.
Two other
companies have operated steamers on the river,
and one of them
has always been fully as good as that of
Messrs. Cook's. At
present this line is their only competitor.
I refer to the Anglo-American Nile Steamer and Hotel
Company, which also has a weekly service of tourist
steamers making a twenty-day trip. Their steamers are
new and
of rather lighter draught than the line just mentioned.
This
enables them to travel more securely in the
season of low
water. They maintain an excellent table
and are kept up to a
high standard in every way.
The express service of Messrs. Thomas Cook & Son
is the cheapest on the river and affords an excellent trip
for those able to take care of themselves in a strange
country and who wish to pay minimum rates. The fare
is only twenty-two pounds and includes accommodation
at the hotels at
Luxor
and
Aswan, for it is necessary
to stop over one steamer at each of these places. All
excursions
must be arranged by the tourist, and the
success
of his trip from the standpoint of study and
sightseeing
depends largely on his own skill and ability
as a traveler.
Sufficient time is allowed for visiting all the
temples and
tombs which are in the program of the tourist
steamers
except
Saqqara and
Abydos. The former
can easily be
visited from
Cairo.
Abydos is omitted by
many people
on account of the long donkey ride, although it is
a very
interesting trip. Those who wish to make the
excursion
can overtake the steamer at
Assiut, going thither by
rail.
Arrangements can be made by all these lines to take a
combined rail
and river trip, thus shortening the time. I
do not recommend
this except where absolutely necessary,
for I consider the
entire twenty-day trip by the tourist
steamer none too long.
But it is better than to make the
entire trip by rail.
The railway enables the traveler to visit
Luxor and
Aswan in a few days. Three days at the
former and two
at the latter should be the minimum. One can
include
Dendera and
Edfu without being obliged to trespass on
the
hospitality of indifferent native hotels. The trip can
be made
comfortably in the sleeping-cars of the night
train, but
nothing can be seen of the river and country.
The train leaves
Cairo after dark and arrives at
Luxor soon after
breakfast.
Those who spend the winter in Egypt for the sake of
their health will probably be more comfortable at
Luxor and
Aswan than at
Cairo. The former place has more
of interest in
temples and tombs and also has good hotels.
Aswan has even better hotels; in fact,
the Cataract and the
Savoy are equal to any in
Cairo. The invalid who hopes
for health from the sunshine of Egypt and the
uncontaminated
air of the desert will do better to come to
Aswan.
A few years
hence I think he will go still farther south,
into
Nubia.
Messrs. Cook & Son have two steamers and the
Anglo-American
Company has one for the tourist service
from
Aswan to the second cataract. The fare is
twenty pounds.
The great sight is
Abu Simbel, but the whole trip is interesting
and well rewards one for the extra time and cost.
There is no railway, but the government steamers enable
the traveler to make the trip quicker and cheaper,
omitting
all stops except
Abu Simbel.
At present the train de luxe runs twice a week between
Wady Halfa
and Khartum, taking a little over twenty-four
hours for the
journey of 560 miles. The fare is twenty
Egyptian pounds. One
can leave
Cairo on Sunday or
Wednesday evenings and be in Khartum on Thursday
and Sunday mornings—less than four days.
From Khartum a government steamer runs monthly on
the White Nile to Gondokoro, 1,081 miles farther. This is
in
the district of Uganda in the centre of Africa and only
a
generation ago an inaccessible native state, famous for
barbarism. It is not a difficult journey from Gondokoro
to
Lake Victoria Nyanza. Steamers are now running on
the lake,
and the traveler can go to Mombassa on the
Indian Ocean by
rail from Port Victoria.
The tourist can make a shorter trip on the White Nile
to Goz Abu Guma and return or he can ascend the Blue
Nile
toward Abyssinia. Next year he can return to
Berber by rail
and continue to Suakin on the
Red Sea,
whence there will be steamers to
Suez and to India.
In leaving Egypt one has a choice of four main routes.
He can go on to India, China, and Japan. He can return
to Italy direct or via Athens. From Greece he can go
northward to Constantinople if he be so minded.
The best plan is to make a longer or shorter tour in
Palestine. It is not generally known that Jerusalem is so
near
Cairo. The distance in an air line
is only about 250
miles. Thirty hours, about twelve of them on
the steamer
and less than nine by rail, suffice for the trip.
About thirty
days is necessary for a tour through Palestine,
although it
can be hurried over in less time. A week or ten
days is
sufficient for Jerusalem and vicinity, including
Bethlehem,
the Dead Sea, and the Jordan. The camping tour
in
Palestine is undoubtedly the best and most enjoyable
way,
under favorable conditions, of seeing the country.
But,
like the
dahabiyeh in Egypt, it is becoming obsolete,
pushed aside by
the hurry of the modern tourist. So the
trip through the
country is usually made by carriage, and
even this is rapidly
giving way to the railroad. A week
should be spent in Damascus
and Ba'albec. The ruins of
the
temple of the Sun, although of Roman construction and
date, are of sufficient size and grandeur to be compared
with those of Egypt, even with
Karnak.
Syria and
Asia
Minor are full of ruins and the tide of travel is
bound to
turn thither when Palestine becomes so opened that it
is
regarded as commonplace. The French express steamer
runs from Beirut to Smyrna and Constantinople on alternate
Saturdays. There are also Austrian and Russian
lines, which usually stop along the coast, taking more
time.
I cannot too strongly recommend the tour of Palestine
after Egypt. Some people have a mistaken idea that
Palestine is only interesting from its connection with the
Bible and that one must be deeply religious to enjoy and
appreciate it. Undoubtedly an interest in the Bible and
its
teachings and history gives added pleasure to the
traveler,
but I regard Palestine as a very delightful country
to visit
simply for itself. It is a great contrast to Egypt.
Its views
of mountain and valley are a surprise and doubly
attractive to
those who come from Egypt. The very air is
different. It is
pleasant to spend a month in a climate of
sunshine and
pleasant weather, but sooner or later those of
us who are used
to variety in the weather begin to long
for a change. The time
in Egypt must not be cut short.
It would seem harsh to say
that if one cannot give sufficient
time to the trip he should
stay at home. I dare not go so
far, but I will strongly urge
the traveler with limited time
to see one country in a sane
and enjoyable way and leave
the other
with the rest of the world to wait for the next
vacation.
I have already referred to the Mediterranean cruises,
which are apparently quite popular and successful. As a
pleasure cruise for the sake of a sea voyage, with a kaleidoscopic
picture of many lands, they may be enjoyable. But
let no one so delude himself as to think that it is
possible
for such excursionists to adequately see Egypt or
Palestine.
An important item in the preparations for the journey
is the selection of proper wearing apparel. Most people
expect to find Egypt hot and prepare accordingly. It often
is
warm during the day, but after the sun goes down it may
be
chilly and even cold. In the winter months a fire is
much
appreciated in
Cairo and even on the
river. I have
seen the thermometer below 40° F. at
Aswan. My advice
to those
who go in winter and early spring is to look for
weather like
our September and October. The Nile valley
is a ravine running
north and south. A wind from the
south brings heat but is
often none the less strong. The
north wind is cold at any
season of the year.
Alexandria has quite a number of rainy days in the winter.
Cairo has
a few showery
ones. But a
Cairo shower is often very
violent, with as much precipitation in a few minutes as
would ordinarily do for a whole day. South of
Cairo the
chance for even
a shower diminishes, and
Luxor and
Aswan may not have one for several years.
Another matter that will come up is the drinking water.
All the water in Egypt has its ultimate source in the
Nile.
I cannot take the responsibility of advising the
traveler to
drink it; but I think if evil results from it the
fault may be
with the individual, not with the water. In
ancient times
the water of the Nile was highly esteemed. It
was carried
to Mecca and
Bagdad for the table of the Caliphs. Perhaps
a few germs
flavored it—microbes had not been
discovered in those days. I
drink the water myself in
generous quantities and have never
felt any ill effects.
A friend of mine, traveling in Egypt,
was so careful that
he refused lettuce on the ground that it
might have been
washed in Nile water, and even hesitated to
use it for his
own ablutions. The suggestion that unwashed
salad be
prepared for him was rejected. Those in doubt
should
ask advice from a physician, but be careful not to
consult
two of them or you may be more uncertain than
ever.
After taking thought for physical comfort, one turns to
the provision for reading and study. A guide-book is
unquestionably
essential. Baedeker and Murray are both
good. We have no good popular history. That of Prof.
Budge is too rambling and too bulky for the tourist, while
Prof. Petrie's is a list of kings and a catalogue of
monuments
rather than a narrative history. Our knowledge
of ancient
Egypt is in such a state of transition and growth
that the
older works of Rawlinson and Wilkinson cannot be
recommended
to-day. The traveler will unconsciously
acquire
the main facts of the history in the course of the
trip, and
then if he wishes to go deeper he can soon be in a
position
to know and judge for himself. Erman's “Life in
Ancient
Egypt,” translated by H. M. Tirard, is
entertaining and
recent. Miss Edwards' “A Thousand Miles Up
the Nile”
is a classic and to be read as such rather than as a
description
of the river and country to-day. Considerable
fiction
based on the life and times of old has been
produced.
Much of it is good but ephemeral. The works of
George
Ebers hold the most prominent and lasting place.
“Uarda” and “The Egyptian Princess” are the best
known. “The Bride of the Nile” and “Serapis” are also
good. Such
novels convey information in such a subtle
way that the reader
deceives himself into thinking that he
is killing time. The
best book is the picture book which
forms itself in one's own
brain, which cannot be stolen
therefrom, but can be shown to
others, and in such use
gets constantly brighter and
clearer.
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